Regulation of protein metabolism by glutamine: Implications for nutrition and health

Frontiers in Bioscience

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 578-597

  Xi, Pengbin ^a,b   Jiang, Zongyong ^a   Zheng, Chuntian ^a   Lin, Yingcai ^a   Wu, Guoyao ^b,c  

^a INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE   (China)

^b TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c CHINA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

Catabolism; Disease; Glutamine; Health; Metabolism; Nutrition; Protein turnover; Review

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; RATTUS;

GLUTAMINE; PROTEIN;

ANIMAL; BURN; CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISORDER; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DUCHENNE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY; HUMAN; MALNUTRITION; METABOLISM; NEOPLASM; NEWBORN; NUTRITIONAL SCIENCE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; RAT; REVIEW; SEPSIS; SKELETAL MUSCLE; VERY LOW BIRTH WEIGHT;

ANIMALS; BURNS; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; GLUTAMINE; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; INFANT, VERY LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; MALNUTRITION; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY, DUCHENNE; NEOPLASMS; NUTRITIONAL SCIENCES; PROTEINS; RATS; SEPSIS;

EID: 79955018523     PISSN: 27686701     EISSN: 27686698     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2741/3707     Document Type: Article

References (194)

1. H. Kwon, T. E. Spencer, F. W. Bazer and G. Wu: Developmental changes of amino acids in ovine fetal fluids. Biol Reprod 68(5), 1813-20 (2003) (Pubitemid 36519790)
2. S. W. Kim and G. Wu: Regulatory role for amino acids in mammary gland growth and milk synthesis. Amino Acids 37, 89-95 (2009)
3. G. Wu: Amino acids: metabolism, functions, and nutrition. Amino Acids 37, 1-17 (2009)
4. P. Li, D. A. Knabe, S. W. Kim, C. J. Lynch, S. M. Hutson and G. Wu: Lactating porcine mammary tissue catabolizes branched-chain amino acids for glutamine and aspartate synthesis. J Nutr 139, 1502-9 (2009a)
5. G. Wu, F. W. Bazer, R. C. Burghardt, G. A. Johnson, S. W. Kim, X. L. Li, M. C. Satterfield and T. E. Spencer: Impacts of amino acid nutrition on pregnancy outcome in pigs: mechanisms and implications for swine production. J Anim Sci 88, E195-204 (2010)
6. N. P. Curthoys and M. Watford: Regulation of glutaminase activity and glutamine metabolism. Annu Rev Nutr 15, 133-59 (1995)
7. G. Y. Wu, J. R. Thompson and V. E. Baracos: Glutamine metabolism in skeletal muscles from the broiler chick (Gallus domesticus) and the laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus). Biochem J 274, 769-74 (1991)
8. G. Wu, F. W. Bazer, J. M. Wallace and T. E. Spencer: Intrauterine growth retardation: Implications for the animal sciences. J Anim Sci 84, 2316-2337 (2006) (Pubitemid 44367856)
9. P. Li, Y. L. Yin, D. Li, S. W. Kim and G. Wu: Amino acids and immune function. Br J Nutr 98, 237-52 (2007) (Pubitemid 47091364)
10. A. E. Murakami, M. I. Sakamoto, M. R. Natali, L. M. Souza and J. R. Franco: Supplementation of glutamine and vitamin E on the morphometry of the intestinal mucosa in broiler chickens. Poult Sci 86, 488-95 (2007) (Pubitemid 47581086)
11. G. Wu and S. M. J. Morris: Arginine metabolism: nitric oxide and beyond. Biochem J 336, 1-17 (1998) (Pubitemid 28532555)
12. P. MacLennan, R. Brown and M. Rennie: A positive relationship between protein synthetic rate and intracellular glutamine concentration in perfused rat skeletal muscle. FEBS Lett 215, 187-91 (1987) (Pubitemid 17099161)
13. P. MacLennan, K. Smith, B. Weryk, P. Watt and M. Rennie: Inhibition of protein breakdown by glutamine in perfused rat skeletal muscle. FEBS Lett, 237, 133-36 (1988)
14. G. Y. Wu and J. R. Thompson: The effect of glutamine on protein turnover in chick skeletal muscle in vitro. Biochem J 265, 593-8 (1990) (Pubitemid 20042008)
15. M. Watford and G. Wu: Glutamine metabolism in uricotelic species: variation in skeletal muscle glutamine synthetase, glutaminase, glutamine levels and rates of protein synthesis. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 140, 607-14 (2005) (Pubitemid 40343059)
16. R. Curi, C. J. Lagranha, S. Q. Doi, D. F. Sellitti, J. Procopio, T. C. Pithon-Curi, M. Corless and P. Newsholme: Molecular mechanisms of glutamine action. J Cell Physiol 204, 392-401 (2005) (Pubitemid 40934632)
17. M. Coeffier, S. Claeyssens, B. Hecketsweiler, A. Lavoinne, P. Ducrotte and P. Dechelotte: Enteral glutamine stimulates protein synthesis and decreases ubiquitin mRNA level in human gut mucosa. Am J Physiology 285, G266-273 (2003) (Pubitemid 36875197)
18. J. M. Rhoads and G. Wu: Glutamine, arginine, and leucine signaling in the intestine. Amino Acids 37, 111-22 (2009)
19. A. J. Meijer and P. F. Dubbelhuis: Amino acid signalling and the integration of metabolism. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 313, 397-403 (2004) (Pubitemid 37543599)
20. G. Wu, D. A. Knabe and N. E. Flynn: Synthesis of citrulline from glutamine in pig enterocytes. Biochem J 299, 115-21 (1994) (Pubitemid 24106297)
21. G. Wu, D. A. Knabe and S. W. Kim: Arginine nutrition in neonatal pigs. J Nutr 134, 2783S-2790S (2004) (Pubitemid 39315221)
22. G. Wu, T. E. Haynes, H. Li, W. Yan and C. J. Meininger: Glutamine metabolism to glucosamine is necessary for glutamine inhibition of endothelial nitric oxide synthesis. Biochem J 353, 245-52 (2001) (Pubitemid 32096932)
23. G. Wu, Y. Z. Fang, S. Yang, J. R. Lupton and N. D. Turner: Glutathione metabolism and its implications for health. J Nutr 134, 489-92 (2004) (Pubitemid 38298485)
24. T. E. Haynes, P. Li, X. Li, K. Shimotori, H. Sato, N. E. Flynn, J. Wang, D. A. Knabe and G. Wu: L-Glutamine or L-alanyl-L-glutamine prevents oxidant-or endotoxininduced death of neonatal enterocytes. Amino Acids 37, 131-42 (2009)
25. S. S. Palii, C. E. Kays, C. Deval, A. Bruhat, P. Fafournoux and M. S. Kilberg: Specificity of amino acid regulated gene expression: analysis of genes subjected to either complete or single amino acid deprivation. Amino Acids 37, 79-88 (2009)
26. X. Li, F. W. Bazer, H. Gao, W. Jobgen, G. A. Johnson, P. Li, J. R. McKnight, M. C. Satterfield, T. E. Spencer and G. Wu: Amino acids and gaseous signaling. Amino Acids 37, 65-78 (2009)
27. J. Wang, L. Chen, P. Li, X. Li, H. Zhou, F. Wang, D. Li, Y. Yin and G. Wu: Gene expression is altered in piglet small intestine by weaning and dietary glutamine supplementation. J Nutr 138, 1025-32 (2008) (Pubitemid 351769124)
28. N. E. Flynn, J. G. Bird and A. S. Guthrie: Glucocorticoid regulation of amino acid and polyamine metabolism in the small intestine. Amino Acids 37, 123-9 (2009)
29. P. Newsholme, L. Brennan, B. Rubi and P. Maechler: New insights into amino acid metabolism, beta-cell function and diabetes. Clin Sci (Lond) 108, 185-94 (2005) (Pubitemid 40343565)
30. F. Blachier, A. H. Lancha, Jr., C. Boutry and D. Tome: Alimentary proteins, amino acids and cholesterolemia. Amino Acids 38, 15-22 (2010)
31. M. Eklou-Lawson, F. Bernard, N. Neveux, C. Chaumontet, C. Bos, A. M. Davila-Gay, D. Tome, L. Cynober and F. Blachier: Colonic luminal ammonia and portal blood L-glutamine and L-arginine concentrations: a possible link between colon mucosa and liver ureagenesis. Amino Acids 37, 751-60 (2009)
32. R. Elango, R. O. Ball and P. B. Pencharz: Amino acid requirements in humans: with a special emphasis on the metabolic availability of amino acids. Amino Acids 37, 19-27 (2009)
33. L. Chen, P. Li, J. Wang, X. Li, H. Gao, Y. Yin, Y. Hou and G. Wu: Catabolism of nutritionally essential amino acids in developing porcine enterocytes. Amino Acids 37, 143-52 (2009)
34. W. W. Wang, S. Y. Qiao and D. F. Li: Amino acids and gut function. Amino Acids 37, 105-10 (2009b)
35. W. G. Bergen and G. Wu: Intestinal nitrogen recycling and utilization in health and disease. J Nutr 139, 821-5 (2009)
36. G. Wu: Intestinal mucosal amino acid catabolism. J Nutr 128, 1249-52 (1998)
37. R. G. Hankard, D. Darmaun, B. K. Sager, D. D'Amore, W. R. Parsons and M. Haymond: Response of glutamine metabolism to exogenous glutamine in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 269, E663-70 (1995)
38. R. G. H. Hankard, M.W. Haymond, D. Darmaun: Effect of glutamine on leucine metabolism in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 271, E748-54 (1996)
39. J. J. Boza, J. Maire, L. Bovetto, O.Ballevre: Plasma glutamine response to enteral administration of glutamine in human volunteers (free glutamine versus protein-bound glutamine). Nutrition 16, 1037-42 (2000)
40. R. G. H. Hankard, M.W. Haymond, D. Darmaun: ESPEN research fellows symposia-presented at ESPEN 1995. Effect of enteral glutamine on glutamine and leucine metabolism in humans. Clin Nutr 15, 84-5 (1996)
41. D. C. Gore and R. R. Wolfe: Glutamine supplementation fails to affect muscle protein kinetics in critically ill patients. Parenter Enteral Nutr 26, 342-9 (2002)
42. O. E. Rooyackers, P. B. Soeters, W. H. Saris and A. J. Wagenmakers: Effect of an enterally administered glutamine-rich protein on the catabolic response to a zymosan challenge in rats. Clin Nutr 14, 105-15 (1995)
43. T. Higashiguchi, P. Hasselgren, K. Wagner and J. Fischer: Effect of glutamine on protein synthesis in isolated intestinal epithelial cells. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 17, 307-14 (1993) (Pubitemid 23218245)
44. D. N. Van Acker BAC, P. B. Soeters: Increased intestinal protein synthesis during glutamine-enriched enteral nutrition. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 20, 30-8 (1996)
45. T. Hiramatsu, J. Cortiella, J. S. Marchini, T. E. Chapman and V. R. Young: Source and amount of dietary nonspecific nitrogen in relation to whole-body leucine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine kinetics in young men. Am J Clin Nutr 59, 1347-55 (1994)
46. J. S. Marchini, P. Nguyen, J. Y. Deschamps, P. Maugere, M. Krempf and D. Darmaun: Effect of intravenous glutamine on duodenal mucosa protein synthesis in healthy growing dogs. Am J Physiol 276, E747-53 (1999) (Pubitemid 29211348)
47. E. Svanberg, A. C. Moller-Loswick, D. E. Matthews, U. Korner and K. Lundholm: The effect of glutamine on protein balance and amino acid flux across arm and leg tissues in healthy volunteers. Clin Physiol 21, 478-89 (2001)
48. M. Coeffier, S. Claeyssens, S. Lecleire, J. Leblond, A. Coquard, C. Bole-Feysot, A. Lavoinne, P. Ducrotte and P. Dechelotte: Combined enteral infusion of glutamine, carbohydrates, and antioxidants modulates gut protein metabolism in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 88, 1284-90 (2008)
49. T. Higashiguchi, Y. Noguchi, T. Meyer, J. E. Fischer and P. O. Hasselgren: Protein synthesis in isolated enterocytes from septic or endotoxaemic rats: regulation by glutamine. Clin Sci (Lond) 89, 311-9 (1995)
50. D. G. Burrin, R. J. Shulman, M. C. Storm and P. J. Reeds: Glutamine or glutamic acid effects on intestinal growth and disaccharidase activity in infant piglets receiving total parenteral nutrition. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 15, 262-6 (1991)
51. F. Hammarqvist, J. Wernerman, R. Ali and E. Vinnars: Effects of an amino acid solution enriched with either branched chain amino acids or ornithine-alphaketoglutarate on the postoperative intracellular amino acid concentration of skeletal muscle. Br J Surg 77, 214-8 (1990) (Pubitemid 20055848)
52. F. Hammarqvist, J. Wernerman, A. von der Decken and E. Vinnars: Alpha-ketoglutarate preserves protein synthesis and free glutamine in skeletal muscle after surgery. Surgery 109, 28-36 (1991)
53. F. Hammarqvist, C. Stromberg, A. von der Decken, E. Vinnars and J. Wernerman: Biosynthetic human growth hormone preserves both muscle protein synthesis and the decrease in muscle-free glutamine, and improves wholebody nitrogen economy after operation. Ann Surg 216, 184-91 (1992)
54. E. Vinnars, F. Hammarqvist, A. von der Decken and J. Wernerman: Role of glutamine and its analogs in posttraumatic muscle protein and amino acid metabolism. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 14, 125S-129S (1990)
55. F. Hammarqvist, J. Jacks and J. Wernerman: Effects on skeletal muscle amino acids and whole body nitrogen metabolism of total parenteral nutrition following laparoscopic cholecystectomy and given to healthy volunteers. Clin Nutr 17, 205-10 (1998) (Pubitemid 28543095)
56. B. I. Blomqvist, F. Hammarqvist, A. von der Decken and J. Wernerman: Glutamine and alpha-ketoglutarate prevent the decrease in muscle free glutamine concentration and influence protein synthesis after total hip replacement. Metabolism 44, 1215-22 (1995) (Pubitemid 26084044)
57. F. Hammarqvist, J. Wernerman, R. Ali, A. von der Decken and E. Vinnars: Addition of glutamine to total parenteral nutrition after elective abdominal surgery spares free glutamine in muscle, counteracts the fall in muscle protein synthesis, and improves nitrogen balance. Ann Surg 209, 455-61 (1989) (Pubitemid 19106277)
58. P. Stehle, J. Zander, N. Mertes, S. Albers, C. Puchstein, P. Lawin and P. Furst: Effect of parenteral glutamine peptide supplements on muscle glutamine loss and nitrogen balance after major surgery. Lancet 1(8632), 231-3 (1989) (Pubitemid 19045466)
59. B. A. van Acker, K. W. Hulsewe, A. J. Wagenmakers, P. B. Soeters and M. F. von Meyenfeldt: Glutamine appearance rate in plasma is not increased after gastrointestinal surgery in humans. J Nutr 130, 1566-71 (2000) (Pubitemid 30340704)
60. S. Yoshida, T. Yunoki, K. Aoyagi, J. Ohta, N. Ishibashi, T. Noake and T Kakegawa: Effect of glutamine supplement and hepatectomy on DNA and protein synthesis in the remnant liver. J Surg Res 59, 475-481 (1995)
61. S. Skullman, M. Wiren, M. Chu, J. Permert, P. J. Garlick, M. A. McNurlan and J. Larsson: Effects of graded glutamine intake on liver protein metabolism following partial hepatectomy. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 7, 881-6 (1995)
62. F. Hammarqvist, B. Petersson, M. R. Ali and J. Wernerman: Glutamine in postoperative parenteral nutrition has a positive affect on nitrogen balance. Lakartidningen 86, 229-31 (1989)
63. F. Hammarqvist, J. Wernerman, A. von der Decken and E. Vinnars: Alanyl-glutamine counteracts the depletion of free glutamine and the postoperative decline in protein synthesis in skeletal muscle. Ann Surg 212, 637-44 (1990)
64. P. Stehle, I. Ratz and P. Furst: In vivo utilization of intravenously supplied L-alanyl-L-glutamine in various tissues of the rat. Nutrition 5, 411-5 (1989) (Pubitemid 20062776)
65. M. P. Berard, J. F. Zazzo, P. Condat, M. P. Vasson and L. Cynober: Total parenteral nutrition enriched with arginine and glutamate generates glutamine and limits protein catabolism in surgical patients hospitalized in intensive care units. Crit Care Med 28, 3637-44 (2000)
66. X. Peng, Z. Y. You, X. K. Huang, S. Q. Zhang, G. Z. He, W. G. Xie and Z. F. Quan: Effects of glutamine granules on protein metabolism in trauma patients. Zhonghua Wai Ke Za Zhi 42, 406-9 (2004)
67. F. Hammarqvist, A. Sandgren, K. Andersson, P. Essen, M. A. McNurlan, P. J. Garlick and J. Wernerman: Growth hormone together with glutamine-containing total parenteral nutrition maintains muscle glutamine levels and results in a less negative nitrogen balance after surgical trauma. Surgery 129, 576-86 (2001) (Pubitemid 32374989)
68. X. Zhang, J. Li, N. Li and Y. Li: Improvement of protein metabolism by glutamine-enriched TPN and growth hormone in recipients of rat small bowel transplantation. Zhonghua Wai Ke Za Zhi 38, 622-4 (2000)
69. A. Januszkiewicz, P. Essen, M. A. McNurlan, G. A. Calder, K. Andersson, J. Wernerman and P. J. Garlick: Effect of a short-term infusion of glutamine on muscle protein metabolism postoperatively. Clin Nutr 15, 267-73 (1996) (Pubitemid 26397596)
70. C. Long, K. Nelson, D. DiRienzo, J. Weis, R. Stahl, T. Broussard, W. Theus, J. Clark, T. Pinson and J. Geiger: Glutamine supplementation of enteral nutrition: impact on whole body protein kinetics and glucose metabolism in critically ill patients. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 19, 470-6 (1995)
71. M. Wiren, T. E. Adrian, F. Hammarqvist, K. E. Johansson, J. Permert, B. Petersson, J. Wernerman and J. Larsson: The effects of a new amino-acid dipeptide solution on nitrogen balance and humoral growth factors in the postoperative state in man. Clin Nutr 14, 97-104 (1995)
72. E. Garcia-Arumi, S. Schwartz, J. Lopez-Hellin, M. A. Arbos, A. L. Andreu and M. Farriol: Addition of glutamine does not improve protein synthesis and jejunal mucosa morphology in non-hypercatabolic stress. Physiol Res 44, 233-9 (1995)
73. M. Fink and S. Heard: Laboratory models of sepsis and septic shock. J Surg Res 49, 186-196 (1990) (Pubitemid 20241651)
74. M. Parry-Billings, B. Leighton, G. Dimitriadis, P. R. de Vasconcelos and E. A. Newsholme: Skeletal muscle glutamine metabolism during sepsis in the rat. Int J Biochem 21, 419-23 (1989)
75. M. J. O'Leary, C. N. Ferguson, M. Rennie, C. J. Hinds, J. H. Coakley and V. R. Preedy: Effect of growth hormone on muscle and liver protein synthesis in septic rats receiving glutamine-enriched parenteral nutrition. Crit Care Med 30, 1099-1105 (2002) (Pubitemid 34508034)
76. M. J. O'Leary, C. N. Ferguson, M. Rennie, C. J. Hinds, J. H. Coakley and V. R. Preedy: Sequential changes in in vivo muscle and liver protein synthesis and plasma and tissue glutamine levels in sepsis in the rat. Clin Sci 101, 295-304 (2001) (Pubitemid 32835527)
77. M. J. O'Leary, C. N. Ferguson, M. Rennie, C. J. Hinds, J. H. Coakley and V. R. Preedy: Influence of starvation, surgery, and sepsis on cardiac protein synthesis in rats: effects of parenteral nutrition, glutamine, and growth hormone. Shock 18, 265-271 (2002)
78. M. Wusteman, D. G. Wight and M. Elia: Protein metabolism after injury with turpentine: a rat model for clinical trauma. Am J Physiol 259, E763-9 (1990)
79. M. Holecek, T. Muthny, M. Kovarik and L. Sispera: Simultaneous infusion of glutamine and branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) to septic rats does not have more favorable effect on protein synthesis in muscle, liver, and small intestine than separate infusions. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 30, 467-73 (2006)
80. M. Wusteman and M. Elia: Effect of glutamine infusions on glutamine concentration and protein synthetic rate in rat muscle. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 15, 521-5 (1991)
81. M. Wusteman, H. Tate and M. Elia: The use of a constant infusion of [3H]phenylalanine to measure the effects of glutamine infusions on muscle protein synthesis in rats given turpentine. Nutrition 11, 27-31 (1995)
82. C. H. Fang, J. H. James, J. E. Fischer and P. O. Hasselgren: Is muscle protein turnover regulated by intracellular glutamine during sepsis? J Parenter Enteral Nutr 19, 279-85 (1995)
83. M. Wusteman, A. Hayes, D. Stirling and M. Elia: Changes in protein distribution in the rat during prolonged "systemic injury". J Surg Res 56, 331-7 (1994)
84. T. R. Austgen, M. K. Chen, T. C. Flynn, and W. W. Souba: The effects of endotoxin on the splanchnic metabolism of glutamine and related substrates. J Trauma 31, 742-51 (1991)
85. M. Holecek, F. Skopec, H. Skalska and L. Sprongl: Effect of alanyl-glutamine on leucine and protein metabolism in endotoxemic rats. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 24, 215-22 (2000)
86. S. Naka, H. Saito, Y. Hashiguchi, M. T. Lin, S. Furukawa, T. Inaba, R. Fukushima, N. Wada and T. Muto: Alanyl-glutamine-supplemented total parenteral nutrition improves survival and protein metabolism in rat protracted bacterial peritonitis model. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 20, 417-23 (1996) (Pubitemid 26399218)
87. M. Wusteman, H. Tate, L. Weaver, S. Austin, G. Neale and M. Elia: The effect of enteral glutamine deprivation and supplementation on the structure of rat small-intestine mucosa during a systemic injury response. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 19, 22-7 (1995)
88. P. Pernet, C. Coudray-Lucas, C. Schneid, A. Jardel and L. Cynober: Dose dependency of the effect of ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate on tissue glutamine concentrations and hypercatabolic response in endotoxaemic rats. Br J Nutr 92, 627-34 (2004) (Pubitemid 39406645)
89. T. Okuma, H. Kaneko, K. Chen, N. Ogawa, Y. Torigoe, Y. Miyauchi and M. Tosaka: Total parenteral nutrition supplemented with L-alanyl-L-glutamine and gut structure and protein metabolism in septic rats. Nutrition 10, 241-5 (1994) (Pubitemid 24232308)
90. R. F. Vesali, M. Klaude, O. E. Rooyackers, I. T. Jader, I. H. Barle and J. Wernerman: Longitudinal pattern of glutamine/glutamate balance across the leg in long-stay intensive care unit patients. Clin Nutr 21, 505-14 (2002) (Pubitemid 35446850)
91. N. Jackson, P. Carroll, D. Russell-Jones, P. Sonksen, D. Treacher and A. Umpleby: The metabolic consequences of critical illness: acute effects on glutamine and protein metabolism. Am J Physiol 276, E163-71 (1999)
92. A. M. Umpleby, P. V. Carroll, D. L. Russell-Jones, D. F. Treacher and N. C. Jackson: Glutamine supplementation and GH/IGF-I treatment in critically ill patients: effects on glutamine metabolism and protein balance. Nutrition 18, 127-129 (2002) (Pubitemid 34158671)
93. F. Hammarqvist, J. L. Luo, I. A. Cotgreave, K. Andersson and J. Wernerman: Skeletal muscle glutathione is depleted in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 25, 78-84 (1997)
94. P. V. Carroll, N. C. Jackson, D. L. Russell-Jones, D. F. Treacher, P. H. Sonksen and A. M. Umpleby: Combined growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor I in addition to glutamine-supplemented TPN results in net protein anabolism in critical illness. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 286, E151-7 (2004) (Pubitemid 38036622)
95. I. Tjader, O. Rooyackers, A. M. Forsberg, R. F. Vesali, P. J. Garlick and J. Wernerman: Effects on skeletal muscle of intravenous glutamine supplementation to ICU patients. Intensive Care Med 30, 266-75 (2004) (Pubitemid 38253418)
96. B. A. van Acker, K. W. Hulsewe, A. J. Wagenmakers, M. F. von Meyenfeldt and P. B. Soeters: Response of glutamine metabolism to glutamine-supplemented parenteral nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 72, 790-5 (2000) (Pubitemid 30667101)
97. R. C. Moundras, D. Bercovici and C. Demign: Effect of dietary supplementation with glutamic acid or glutamine on the splanchnic and muscle metabolism of glucogenic amino acids in the rat. J Nutr Biochem 4, 222-228 (1993)
98. M. Parrybillings, J. Evans , P. C. Calder and E. A. Newsholme: Does glutamine contribute to immunosuppression after major burns? Lancet 336, 523-525 (1990) (Pubitemid 20278097)
99. X. Peng, Z. Y. You, X. K. Huang, C. Q. Zhang, G. Z. He, W. G. Xie, Z. F. Quan and S. L. Wang: Analysis of the therapeutic effect and the safety of glutamine granules per os in patients with severe burns and trauma. Zhonghua Shao Shang Za Zhi 20, 206-9 (2004)
100. X. Peng, H. Yan, Z. You, P. Wang and S. Wang: Clinical and protein metabolic efficacy of glutamine granules-supplemented enteral nutrition in severely burned patients. Burns 31, 342-6 (2005) (Pubitemid 40363944)
101. S. F. Abcouwer, R. Lohmann, B. P. Bode, R. J. Lustig and W. W. Souba: Induction of glutamine synthetase expression after major burn injury is tissue specific and temporally variable. J Trauma 42, 421-7 (1997)
102. M. S. Ardawi and E. A. Newshalme: Maximal activities of glutaminase and some enzymes of glycolysis and ketone body utilization and rates of utilization of glutamine, glucose and ketone bodies by intestinal mucosa after burn injury. Burns Incl Therm Inj 13, 438-44 (1987) (Pubitemid 18027457)
103. J. B. Pietsch, D. Leonard, W. W. Neblett, N. N. Abumrad and F. K. Ghishan: Burn injury alters intestinal glutamine transport. J Surg Res 46, 296-9 (1989) (Pubitemid 19124256)
104. G. Biolo, R. Y. Fleming, S. P. Maggi, T. T. Nguyen, D. N. Herndon and R. R. Wolfe: Inhibition of muscle glutamine formation in hypercatabolic patients. Clin Sci (Lond) 99, 189-94 (2000)
105. C. J. Lu, C. Lin, J. J. Xu, P. Zhang, G. Z. Cao and B. S. Hong: The influence of combined supplementation of glutamine and recombinant human growth hormone on the protein metabolism in severely burned patients. Zhonghua Shao Shang Za Zhi, 20, 220-2 (2004)
106. R. L. Sheridan, K. Prelack, Y. M. Yu, M. Lydon, L. Petras, V. R. Young and R. G. Tompkins: Short-term enteral glutamine does not enhance protein accretion in burned children: a stable isotope study. Surgery 135, 671-8 (2004) (Pubitemid 38879351)
107. J. Le Boucher, C. Coudray-Lucas, E. Lasnier, A. Jardel, O. G. Ekindjian and L. A. Cynober: Enteral administration of ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate or arginine alpha-ketoglutarate: a comparative study of their effects on glutamine pools in burn-injured rats. Crit Care Med 25, 293-8 (1997) (Pubitemid 27086066)
108. J. H. Park, R. H. McCusker, H. Mohammadpour, D. J. Blackwood, M. Hrbek and J. A. Vanderhoof: Dexamethasone inhibits mucosal adaptation after small bowel resection. Am J Physiol 266, G497-503 (1994) (Pubitemid 24115925)
109. L. C. Read, F. M. Tomas, G. S. Howarth, A. A. Martin, K. J. Edson, C. M. Gillespie, P. C. Owens and F. J. Ballard: Insulin-like growth factor-I and its N-terminal modified analogues induce marked gut growth in dexamethasone-treated rats. J Endocrinol 133, 421-31 (1992)
110. J. J. Boza, M. Turini, D. Moënnoz, F. Montigon, J. Vuichoud, N. Gueissaz, G. Gremaud, E. Pouteau, C. Piguet-Welsch, P. A. Finot and O. Ballèvre: Effect of glutamine supplementation of the diet on tissue protein synthesis rate of glucocorticoid-treated rats. Nutrition 17, 35-40 (2001) (Pubitemid 32114329)
111. B. R. Odedra, P. C. Bates and D. J. Millward: Time course of the effect of catabolic doses of corticosterone on protein turnover in rat skeletal muscle and liver. Biochem J 214, 617-27 (1983) (Pubitemid 13035545)
112. R. C. Hickson, L. E. Wegrzyn, D. F. Osborne and I. E. Karl: Alanyl-glutamine prevents muscle atrophy and glutamine synthetase induction by glucocorticoids. Am J Physiol 271, R1165-72 (1996)
113. M. Parry-Billings, B. Leighton, G. D. Dimitriadis, J. Bond and E. A. Newsholme: Effects of physiological and pathological levels of glucocorticoids on skeletal muscle glutamine metabolism in the rat. Biochem Pharmacol 40, 1145-8 (1990) (Pubitemid 20259723)
114. E. Lofberg, A. Gutierrez, J. Wernerman, B. Anderstam, W. E. Mitch, S. R. Price, J. Bergstrom and A. Alvestrand: Effects of high doses of glucocorticoids on free amino acids, ribosomes and protein turnover in human muscle. Eur J Clin Invest 32, 345-53 (2002) (Pubitemid 36228395)
115. C. Bouteloup-Demange, S. Claeyssens, C. Maillot, A. Lavoinne, E. Lerebours and P. Dechelotte: Effects of enteral glutamine on gut mucosal protein synthesis in healthy humans receiving glucocorticoids. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 278, G677-81 (2000) (Pubitemid 30366419)
116. B. Humbert, O. Le Bacquer, P. Nguyen, H. Dumon and D. Darmaun: Protein restriction and dexamethasone as a model of protein hypercatabolism in dogs: effect of glutamine on leucine turnover. Metabolism 50, 293-298 (2001) (Pubitemid 32248975)
117. D. C. Gore and F. Jahoor: Glutamine kinetics in burn patients. Comparison with hormonally induced stress in volunteers. Arch Surg 129, 1318-23 (1994) (Pubitemid 24374477)
118. F. Hammarqvist, A. von der Decken, E. Vinnars and J. Wernerman: Stress hormone and amino acid infusion in healthy volunteers: short-term effects on protein synthesis and amino acid metabolism in skeletal muscle. Metabolism 43, 1158-63 (1994) (Pubitemid 24286580)
119. R. C. Hickson, S. M. Czerwinski and L. E. Wegrzyn: Glutamine prevents downregulation of myosin heavy chain synthesis and muscle atrophy from glucocorticoids. Am J Physiol 268, E730-4 (1995)
120. R. C. Hickson, L. E. Wegrzyn, D. F. Osborne and I. E. Karl: Glutamine interferes with glucocorticoid-induced expression of glutamine synthetase in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 270, E912-7 (1996)
121. B. Humbert, P. Nguyen, H. Dumon, J. Y. Deschamps and D. Darmaun: Does enteral glutamine modulate wholebody leucine kinetics in hypercatabolic dogs in a fed state? Metabolism 51, 628-35 (2002) (Pubitemid 34516519)
122. R. C. Hickson, D. T. Oehler, R. J. Byerly and T. G. Unterman: Protective effect of glutamine from glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy occurs without alterations in circulating insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and IGF-binding protein levels. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 216, 65-71 (1997)
123. E. Bergamini, M. Bombara, A. Del Roso, Z. Gori, P. Masiello, M. Masini, M. Pollera and S. Vittorini: The regulation of liver protein degradation by aminoacids in vivo. Effects of glutamine and leucine. Arch Physiol Biochem 103, 512-515 (1995)
124. A. J. Garber, R. J. Schwartz, C. L. Seidel, A. Silvers and M. L. Entman: Skeletal muscle protein and amino acid metabolism in hereditary mouse muscular dystrophy. Accelerated protein turnover and increased alanine and glutamine formation and release. J Biol Chem 255, 8315-24 (1980) (Pubitemid 11245948)
125. R. G. Hankard, D. Hammond, M. W. Haymond and D. Darmaun: Oral glutamine slows down whole body protein breakdown in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Pediatr Res 43, 222-6 (1998) (Pubitemid 28086361)
126. R. Hankard, N. Mauras, D. Hammond, M. Haymond and D. Darmaun: Is glutamine a 'conditionally essential' amino acid in Duchenne muscular dystrophy? Clin Nutr 18, 365-9 (1999) (Pubitemid 30032245)
127. E. Mok, B. Constantin, F. Favreau, N. Neveux, C. Magaud, A. Delwail and R. Hankard: l-Glutamine administration reduces oxidized glutathione and MAP kinase signaling in dystrophic muscle of mdx mice. Pediatr Res 63, 268-73 (2008) (Pubitemid 351301455)
128. E. J. Simon, C. S. Gross and I. M. Lessell: Turnover of muscle and liver proteins in mice with hereditary muscular dystrophy. Arch Biochem Biophys 96, 41-6 (1962)
129. V. Ionasescu, H. Zellweger and T. W. Conway: Ribosomal protein synthesis in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Arch Biochem Biophys 144, 51-8 (1971)
130. A. W. Rourke: Myosin in developing normal and dystrophic chicken pectoralis. I. Synthesis and degradation. J Cell Physiol 86, 343-51 (1975)
131. E. Mok, C. Eleouet-Da Violante, C. Daubrosse, F. Gottrand, O. Rigal, J. E. Fontan, J. M. Cuisset, J. Guilhot and R. Hankard: Oral glutamine and amino acid supplementation inhibit whole-body protein degradation in children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Am J Clin Nutr 83, 823-8 (2006) (Pubitemid 44713146)
132. E. Mok, G. Letellier, J. M. Cuisset, A. Denjean, F. Gottrand, C. Alberti and R. Hankard: Lack of functional benefit with glutamine versus placebo in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: a randomized crossover trial. PLoS One 4, e5448 (2009)
133. A. F. Tannus, D. Darmaun, D. F. Ribas, J. E. Oliveira and J. S. Marchini: Glutamine supplementation does not improve protein synthesis rate by the jejunal mucosa of the malnourished rat. Nutr Res 29, 596-601 (2009)
134. W. D. Cunha, G. Friedler, M. Vaisberg, M. I. Egami and L. F. Costa Rosa: Immunosuppression in undernourished rats: the effect of glutamine supplementation. Clin Nutr 22, 453-7 (2003) (Pubitemid 37259248)
135. X. F. Kong, Y. L. Yin, Q. H. He, F. G. Yin, H. J. Liu, T. J. Li, R. L. Huang, M. M. Geng, Z. Ruan, Z. Y. Deng, M. Y. Xie and G. Wu: Dietary supplementation with Chinese herbal powder enhances ileal digestibilities and serum concentrations of amino acids in young pigs. Amino Acids 37, 573-82 (2009)
136. G. Wu, S. A. Meier and D. A. Knabe: Dietary glutamine supplementation prevents jejunal atrophy in weaned pigs. J Nutr 126, 2578-84 (1996) (Pubitemid 26339673)
137. F. P. Elwyn D H, Askanazi J, Kinney J M: Effect of fasting on muscle concentrations of branched chain amino acids. In: Metabolism and Clinical Implications of Branched Chaim Amino and Ketoacids, Eds:M Walter, J R Williamson, Amsterdam and Oxford, Elsevier Holland, New York (1981)
138. K. M. Gil, P. Furst, J. Wood, J. Askanazi, D. H. Elwyn and J. M. Kinney: Muscle and plasma amino-acids during semi-starvation in normal subjects:hypocaloric glucose vs amino-acid infusions. Clin Nutr 4, 21-27 (1985) (Pubitemid 15112810)
139. T. A. Winter, S. J. O'Keefe, M. Callanan and T. Marks: The effect of severe undernutrition and subsequent refeeding on whole-body metabolism and protein synthesis in human subjects. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 29, 221-8 (2005) (Pubitemid 44296711)
140. T. A. Winter, E. R. Lemmer, S. J. O'Keefe and J. M. Ogden: The effect of severe undernutrition, and subsequent refeeding on digestive function in human patients. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 12, 191-6 (2000) (Pubitemid 30166685)
141. T. A. Winter, S. J. O'Keefe, M. Callanan and T. Marks: Effect of severe undernutrition and subsequent refeeding on gut mucosal protein fractional synthesis in human subjects. Nutrition 23, 29-35 (2007) (Pubitemid 44959771)
142. F. Hammarqvist, K. Andersson, J. L. Luo and J. Wernerman: Free amino acid and glutathione concentrations in muscle during short-term starvation and refeeding. Clin Nutr 24, 236-43 (2005) (Pubitemid 40392808)
143. R. G. Hankard, M. W. Haymond and D. Darmaun: Role of glutamine as a glucose precursor in fasting humans. Diabetes 46, 1535-41 (1997) (Pubitemid 27411226)
144. M. Khan K Fau-Wusteman, S. Wusteman M Fau-Wood, M. Wood S Fau-Elia and M. Elia: The effect of severe dietary restriction on intramuscular glutamine concentrations and protein synthetic rate. Clin Nutr 10, 120-124 (1991)
145. K. Magnussbn, A. Alvestrand, L. Ekman, and J. Wahren: Protein and amino-acid metabolism of human skeletal muscle during starvation. Clin Nutr 6(suppl), 62 (1987)
146. T. A. Davis, M. L. Fiorotto, H. V. Nguyen, D. G. Burrin and P. J. Reeds: Response of muscle protein synthesis to fasting in suckling and weaned rats. Am J Physiol 261, R1373-80 (1991)
147. S. E. Samuels, D. Taillandier, E. Aurousseau, Y. Cherel, Y. Le Maho, M. Arnal and D. Attaix: Gastrointestinal tract protein synthesis and mRNA levels for proteolytic systems in adult fasted rats. Am J Physiol 271, E232-238 (1996)
148. M. A. McNurlan, A. M. Tomkins and P.J. Garlick: The effect of starvation on the rate of protein synthesis in rat liver and small intestine. Biochem J 178, 373-379 (1979) (Pubitemid 9152302)
149. S. E. Samuels SE and D. Attaix: Fasting does not increase mRNA levels of
150. T. A. Davis, M. L. Fiorotto, P. R. Beckett, D. G. Burrin, P. J. Reeds, D. Wray-Cahen and H. V. Nguyen: Differential effects of insulin on peripheral and visceral tissue protein synthesis in neonatal pigs. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 280, E770-779 (2001)
151. T. A. Davis, M. L. Fiorotto, D. G. Burrin, P. J. Reeds, H. V. Nguyen, P. R. Beckett, R. C. Vann and P. M. O'Connor: Stimulation of protein synthesis by both insulin and amino acids is unique to skeletal muscle in neonatal pigs. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 282, E880-890 (2002) (Pubitemid 34654750)
152. C. Bouteloup-Demange, Y. Boirie, P. Dechelotte, P. Gachon and B. Beaufrere: Gut mucosal protein synthesis in fed and fasted humans. Am J Physiol 274, E541-6 (1998)
153. C. Le Bacquer O Fau-Laboisse, D. Laboisse C Fau-Darmaun and D. Darmaun: Glutamine preserves protein synthesis and paracellular permeability in Caco-2 cells submitted to "luminal fasting". Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 285, G128-G136 (2003) (Pubitemid 36736396)
154. M. Medina: Glutamine and cancer. J Nutr 131, 2539S (2001)
155. W. T. Chance, L. Cao, M. W. Kim, J. L. Nelson and J. E. Fischer: Reduction of tumor growth following treatment with a glutamine antimetabolite. Life Sci 42, 87-94 (1988) (Pubitemid 18025455)
156. M. K. Chen, N. J. Espat, K. I. Bland, E. M. Copeland, 3rd and W. W. Souba: Influence of progressive tumor growth on glutamine metabolism in skeletal muscle and kidney. Ann Surg 217, 655-66 (1993)
157. S. Yoshida, N. Ishibashi, T. Noake, Y. Shirouzu, T. Oka and K. Shirouzu: Glutamine and arginine metabolism in tumor-bearing rats receiving total parenteral nutrition. Metabolism 46, 370-3 (1997) (Pubitemid 27172082)
158. I. de Blaauw, S. Heeneman, N. E. Deutz and M. F. von Meyenfeldt: Increased whole-body protein and glutamine turnover in advanced cancer is not matched by an increased muscle protein and glutamine turnover. J Surg Res 68, 44-55 (1997) (Pubitemid 27187998)
159. V.S. Klimberg, W.W. Souba, R.M. Salloum, D.A. Plumley, F.S. Cohen, D.J. Dolson, K.I. Bland and E.M. Copeland 3rd: Glutamine-enriched diets support muscle glutamine metabolism without stimulating tumor growth. J Surg Res 48, 319-23 (1990) (Pubitemid 20182460)
160. W. W. Souba: Glutamine and cancer. Ann Surg 218, 715-28 (1993) (Pubitemid 24005815)
161. S. Yoshida, A. Kaibara, K. Yamasaki, N. Ishibashi, T. Noake and T. Kakegawa: Effect of glutamine supplementation on protein metabolism and glutathione in tumor-bearing rats. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 19, 492-7 (1995)
162. J. Norton, R. Shamberger, T. Stein, G. Milne and M. Brennan: The influence of tumor-bearing on protein metabolism in the rat. J Surg Res 30, 456-462 (1981) (Pubitemid 11048127)
163. D. Heber, R. T. Chlebowski, D. E. Ishibashi, J. N. Herrold and J. B. Block: Abnormalities in glucose and protein metabolism in noncachectic lung cancer patients. Cancer Res 42, 4815-4821 (1982)
164. W. W. Souba: Glutamine: a key substrate for the splanchnic bed. Annu Rev Nutr 11, 285-308 (1991) (Pubitemid 21903831)
165. T. R. D. Austgen, P. S. Sitren, H. Bland, K. I. Copeland and W. W. Souba: The effects of glutamineenriched total parenteral nutrition on tumor growth and host tissues. Ann Surg 215, 107-13 (1992)
166. T. Le Bricon: Effect of glutamine supplementation on protein metabolism and glutathione in tumor-bearing rats. Clin Nutr 15, 211 (1996)
167. Y. Kaufmann and V. S. Klimberg: Effect of glutamine on gut glutathione fractional release in the implanted tumor model. Nutr Cancer 59, 199-206 (2007) (Pubitemid 350230738)
168. A. Kaibara, S. Yoshida, K. Yamasaki, N. Ishibashi and T. Kakegawa: Effect of glutamine and chemotherapy on protein metabolism in tumor-bearing rats. J Surg Res 57, 143-9 (1994)
169. R. Smith: Glutamine metabolism and its physiologic importance. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 14, 40S (1990)
170. D. L. Bartlett, S. Charland and M. H. Torosian: Effect of glutamine on tumor and host growth. Ann Surg Oncol 2, 71-6 (1995)
171. S. Yoshida, A. Kaibara, K. Yamasaki, N. Ishibashi, T. Noake and T. Kakegawa: Effect of glutamine supplementation on protein metabolism and glutathione in tumor-bearing rats. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 19, 492-7 (1995)
172. J. M. Rhoads, E. Plunkett, J. Galanko, S. Lichtman, L. Taylor, A. Maynor, T. Weiner, K. Freeman, J. L. Guarisco and G. Y. Wu: Serum citrulline levels correlate with enteral tolerance and bowel length in infants with short bowel syndrome. J Pediatr 146, 542-7 (2005) (Pubitemid 40469721)
173. S. C. Kalhan and S. Iben: Protein metabolism in the extremely low-birth weight infant. Clin Perinatol 27, 23-56 (2000) (Pubitemid 30109063)
174. G. Wu, L. A. Jaeger, F. W. Bazer and J. M. Rhoads: Arginine deficiency in preterm infants: biochemical mechanisms and nutritional implications. J Nutr Biochem 15, 442-51 (2004) (Pubitemid 39118490)
175. C. des Robert, O. Le Bacquer, H. Piloquet, J. C. Roze and D. Darmaun: Acute effects of intravenous glutamine supplementation on protein metabolism in very low birth weight infants: a stable isotope study. Pediatr Res 51, 87-93 (2002) (Pubitemid 34008215)
176. J. Neu: Glutamine in the fetus and critically ill low birth weight neonate: metabolism and mechanism of action. J Nutr 131, 2585S-9S (2001) (Pubitemid 32847013)
177. M. J. Dallas, D. Bowling, J. C. Roig, N. Auestad and J. Neu: Enteral glutamine supplementation for very-lowbirth-weight infants decreases hospital costs. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 22, 352-6 (1998) (Pubitemid 28520510)
178. B. Messing, S. L. Dutra, F. Thuillier, D. Darmaun and J. F. Desjeux: Whole-body protein metabolism assessed by leucine and glutamine kinetics in adult patients with active celiac disease. Metabolism 47, 1429-33 (1998) (Pubitemid 28565523)
179. G. Wu and C. J. Meininger: Nitric oxide and vascular insulin resistance. BioFactors 35, 21-27 (2009)
180. C. J. Meininger, K. A. Kelly, T. E. Haynes, W. Yan and G. Wu: Enhanced activity of glutamine:fructose-6-phosphate transaminase in diabetic rat tissues. Proc. 7th World Congress for Microcirculation (Monduzzi Editore, ed.), pp. 449-452, Medimond Inc., Bologna, Italy (2001)
181. E. B. Marliss, S. Chevalier, R. Gougeon, J. A. Morais, M. Lamarche, O. A. J. Adegoke and G. Wu: Elevations of plasma methylarginines in obesity and ageing are related to insulin sensitivity and rates of protein turnover. Diabetologia 49, 351-359 (2006) (Pubitemid 43185404)
182. R. G. Hankard, M. W. Haymond and D. Darmaun: Role of glucose in the regulation of glutamine metabolism in health and in type 1 insulin-dependent diabetes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 279, E608-13 (2000)
183. V. Hayes, D. Schaeffer, N. Mauras, J. Punati and D. Darmaun: Can glutamine and growth hormone promote protein anabolism in children with cystic fibrosis? Horm Res 58, 21-3 (2002) (Pubitemid 35316832)
184. D. Darmaun, V. Hayes, D. Schaeffer, S. Welch and N. Mauras: Effects of glutamine and recombinant human growth hormone on protein metabolism in prepubertal children with cystic fibrosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89, 1146-52 (2004) (Pubitemid 38368403)
185. M. Holecek, F. Skopec, L. Sprongl, J. Mraz, H. Skalska and M. Pecka: Effect of alanyl-glutamine on leucine and protein metabolism in irradiated rats. Amino Acids 22, 95-108 (2002) (Pubitemid 34158546)
186. J. R. McKnight, M. C. Satterfield, W. S. Jobgen, S. B. Smith, T. E. Spencer, C. J. Meininger, C. J. McNeal and G. Wu: Beneficial effects of L-arginine on reducing obesity: Potential mechanisms and important implications for human health. Amino Acids 39, 349-357 (2010)
187. B. Tan, X. G. Li, X. Kong, R. Huang, Z. Ruan, K. Yao, Z. Deng, M. Xie, I. Shinzato, Y. Yin and G. Wu: Dietary L-arginine supplementation enhances the immune status in early-weaned piglets. Amino Acids 37, 323-31 (2009)
188. M. H. Stipanuk, I. Ueki, J. E. Dominy, Jr., C. R. Simmons and L. L. Hirschberger: Cysteine dioxygenase: a robust system for regulation of cellular cysteine levels. Amino Acids 37, 55-63 (2009)
189. A. Suryawan, P. M. O'Connor, J. A. Bush, H. V. Nguyen and T. A. Davis: Differential regulation of protein synthesis by amino acids and insulin in peripheral and visceral tissues of neonatal pigs. Amino Acids 37, 97-104 (2009)
190. G. Wu: Urea synthesis in enterocytes of developing pigs. Biochem J 312, 717-23 (1995) (Pubitemid 26005979)
191. F. G. Yin, Y. L. Liu, Y. L. Yin, X. F. Kong, R. L. Huang, T. J. Li, G. Y. Wu and Y. Hou: Dietary supplementation with Astragalus polysaccharide enhances ileal digestibilities and serum concentrations of amino acids in early weaned piglets. Amino Acids 37, 263-70 (2009)
192. D. H. Baker: Advances in protein-amino acid nutrition of poultry. Amino Acids 37, 29-41 (2009)
193. Q. He, X. Kong, G. Wu, P. Ren, H. Tang, F. Hao, R. Huang, T. Li, B. Tan, P. Li, Z. Tang, Y. Yin and Y. Wu: Metabolomic analysis of the response of growing pigs to dietary L-arginine supplementation. Amino Acids 37, 199-208 (2009)
194. W. Jobgen, W. J. Fu, H. Gao, P. Li, C. J. Meininger, S. B. Smith, T. E. Spencer and G. Wu: High fat feeding and dietary L-arginine supplementation differentially regulate gene expression in rat white adipose tissue. Amino Acids 37, 187-98 (2009)