Nutritional influences on visual development and function

Progress in Retinal and Eye Research

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 188-203

  Lien, Eric L ^a   Hammond, Billy R ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Carotenoids; Visual Health; Vitamin A; Vitamin E

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTIOXIDANT; ASCORBIC ACID; CAROTENOID; LIPOFUSCIN; MEMBRANE LIPID; PHOTOSENSITIZING AGENT; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; RETINAL; RETINOL; XANTHOPHYLL; ZEAXANTHIN;

ARTICLE; DIETARY INTAKE; GLARE; INFLAMMATION; LIPID PEROXIDATION; NUTRITION; PHOTORECEPTOR OUTER SEGMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RETINA; VISION;

ANIMALS; CAROTENOIDS; DIET; HUMANS; NUTRITIONAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; OCULAR PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; VISION, OCULAR; VITAMIN A; VITAMIN E;

EID: 79954827791     PISSN: 13509462     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2011.01.001     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Alien C.M., Smith A.M., et al. Tomato consumption increases lycopene isomer concentrations in breast milk and plasma of lactating women. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2002, 102(9):1257-1262.
2. Ament M.E., Geggel H.S., Heckenlively J.R., Martin D.A., Kopple J.D. Taurine supplementation in infants receiving long-term parenteral nutrition. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 1986, 5:127-136.
3. Anderson R.E., Benolken R.M., et al. Proceedings: polyunsaturated fatty acids of photoreceptor membranes. Exp. Eye Res. 1974, 18(3):205-213.
4. Auestad N., Montalto M.B., et al. Visual acuity, erythrocyte fatty acid composition, and growth in term infants fed formulas with long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids for one year. Ross Pediatric Lipid Study. Pediatr. Res. 1997, 41(1):1-10.
5. Auestad N., Halter R., et al. Growth and development in term infants fed long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: a double-masked, randomized, parallel, prospective, multivariate study. Pediatrics 2001, 108(2):372-381.
6. Böhm F., Edge R., Land E.J., McGarvey D.J., Truscott T.G. Carotenoids enhance vitamin E antioxidant efficiency. J Am Chem Soc 1997, 119:621-622.
7. Bazan N.G. The metabolism of omega-3 polyunsatuated fatty acids in the eye: the possible role of docosahexaenoic acid and docosaoinds in retinal physiology and ocular pathology. The Ocular Effects of Prostaglandins and Other Eicosanoids 1989, 95-112. Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York.
8. Beatty S., Murray J.J., Henson D.B., et al. Macular pigment and risk for age-related macular degeneration in subjects from a northern European population. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2001, 42:439-446.
9. Bernstein P.S., Delori F.C., Richer S., van Kuijk F.J., Wenzel A.J. The value of measurement of macular carotenoid pigment optical densities and distributions in age-related macular degeneration and other retinal disorders. Vis. Res. 2010, 50:716-728.
10. Berson E.L., Rosner B., Sandberg M.A., et al. Clinical trial of lutein in patients with retinitis pigmentosa receiving vitamin A. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2010, 128(4):403-411.
11. Bettler J., Zimmer J.P., et al. Serum lutein concentrations in healthy term infants fed human milk or infant formula with lutein. Eur. J. Nutr. 2010, 49(1):45-51.
12. Birch E.E., Birch D.G., et al. Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuity development. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1992, 33(11):3242-3253.
13. Birch E.E., Hoffman D.R., et al. Visual acuity and the essentiality of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid in the diet of term infants. Pediatr. Res. 1998, 44(2):201-209.
14. Birch E.E., Hoffman D.R., et al. A randomized controlled trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of formula in term infants after weaning at 6 wk of age. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 75(3):570-580.
15. Bloem M.W., Hye A., Wijnroks M., Ralte A., West K.P., Sommer A. The role of universal distribution of vitamin A capsules in combating vitamin A deficiency in Bangladesh. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1995, 142:843-855.
16. Bone R.A., Landrum J.T., Mayne S.T., Gomez C.M., Tibor S.E., Twaroska E.E. Macular pigment in donor eyes with and without AMD: a case-control study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2001, 42(1):235-240.
17. Bone R.A., Landrum J.T., Guerra L.H., Ruiz C.A. Lutein and zeaxanthin dietary supplements raise macular pigment density and serum concentrations of these carotenoids in humans. J. Nutr. 2003, 133:992-998.
18. Brenna J.T., Varamini B., et al. Docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid concentrations in human breast milk worldwide. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85(6):1457-1464.
19. Brown M.F. Modulation of rhodopsin function by properties of the membrane bilayer. Chem. Phys. Lipids 1994, 73(1-2):159-180.
20. Cai J., Nelson K.C., Wu M., Sternberg P., Jones D.P. Oxidative damage and protection of the RPE. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 2000, 19(2):205-221.
21. Canfield L.M., Clandinin M.T., et al. Multinational study of major breast milk carotenoids of healthy mothers. Eur. J. Nutr. 2003, 42(3):133-141.
22. Carlson S.E., Werkman S.H., et al. Visual-acuity development in healthy preterm infants: effect of marine-oil supplementation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1993, 58(1):35-42.
23. Carnielli V.P., Wattimena D.J., et al. The very low birth weight premature infant is capable of synthesizing arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids from linoleic and linolenic acids. Pediatr. Res. 1996, 40(1):169-174.
24. Ceriello A., Motz E. Is oxidative stress the pathogenic mechanism underlying insulin resistance, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease? The common soil hypothesis revisited. Arteriosc. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2004, 24:816-823.
25. Chew B.P., Park J.S. The immune system. Carotenoids 2009, 5:363-382.
26. Cho E., Hankinson S.E., Rosner B., Willett W.C., Colditz G.A. Prospective study of lutein/zeaxanthin intake and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87(6):1837-1843.
27. Choi J.S., Kim D., Hong Y., Mizuno S., Joo C. Inhibition of nNOS and COX-2 expression by lutein in acute retinal ischemia. Nutrition 2006, 22:608-671.
28. Christ S.L., Lee D.J., et al. Assessment of the effect of visual impairment on mortality through multiple health pathways: structural equation modeling. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2008, 49(8):3318-3323.
29. Codex, A. 1981. Standard for Infant Formula and Formulas for Special Medical Purposes Intended for Infants. CODEX STAN 72, 1-21.
30. Crabtree D., Snodderly D., Adler A. Retinyl palmitate in macaque retina-retinal pigment epithelium-choroid: distribution and correlation with age and vitamin E. Exp. Eye Res. 1997, 64:455-463.
31. Craft N.E., Haitema H.B., Garnett K.M., Fitch K.A., Dorey C.K. Carotenoid, tocopherol and retinol concentrations in the elderly human brain. J. Nutr. Health Aging. 2004, 8(3):156-162.
32. Curcio C.A., Owsley C., Jackson G.R. Spare the rods, save the cones in aging and age-related maculopathy. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2000, 41:2015-2018.
33. Demmelmair H., von Schenck U., et al. Estimation of arachidonic acid synthesis in full term neonates using natural variation of 13C content. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 1995, 21(1):31-36.
34. Dillon J., Zhenga L., Merriama J.C., Gaillard E.R. Transmission of light to the aging human retina: possible implications for age related macular degeneration. Exp. Eye Res. 2004, 79:753-759.
35. Douglas R.H., Marshall N.J. A review of vertebrate and invertebrate ocular filters. Adaptive Mechanisms in the Ecology of Vision 1999.
36. Eldho N.V., Feller S.E., et al. Polyunsaturated docosahexaenoic vs docosapentaenoic acid-differences in lipid matrix properties from the loss of one double bond. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125(21):6409-6421.
37. Engles M., Wooten B., Hammond B. Macular pigment: a test of the acuity hypothesis. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2007, 48:2922-2931.
38. Feeney-Burns L., Hilderbrand E.S., Eldridge S. Aging human RPE: morphometric analysis of macular, equatorial, and peripheral cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1984, 25:195-200.
39. Feller S.E., Gawrisch K. Properties of docosahexaenoic-acid-containing lipids and their influence on the function of rhodopsin. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 2005, 15(4):416-422.
40. Finkel T., Holbrook N.J. Oxidants, oxidative stress and the biology of ageing. Nature 2000, 408(6809):239-247.
41. Fomon S.J. Nutrition of Normal Infants 1993, Mosby, St. Louis, pp. 121-146.
42. Friedrichson T., Kalbach H., Buck P., van Kuijk F. Vitamin E in macular and peripheral tissues of the human eye. Curr. Eye Res. 1995, 14:693-701.
43. Fujikawa A., Gong H., Amemiya T. Vitamin E prevents changes in the cornea and conjunctiva due to vitamin A deficiency. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 2003, 241:287-297.
44. Fukuzawa K., Inokami Y., et al. Rate constants for quenching singlet oxygen and activities for inhibiting lipid peroxidation of carotenoids and alpha-tocopherol in liposomes. Lipids 1998, 33(8):751-756.
45. Gaull G.E. Taurine in pediatric nutrition: review and update. Pediatrics 1989, 83(3):433-442.
46. Geggel H.S., Ament M.E., Heckenlively J.R., Martin D.A., Kopple J.D. Nutritional requirement for taurine in patients receiving long-term parenteral nutrition. N. Engl. J. Med. 1985, 312:142-146.
47. Goralczyk R., Wertz K. Skin photoprotection by carotenoids. Carotenoids 2009, 5:335-362.
48. Ham W.T., Ruffolo J.J., Mueller H.A., Clarke A.M., Moon M.E. Histologic analysis of photochemical lesions produced in rhesus retina by short wave-length light. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1978, 17:1029-1035.
49. Hammond B.R. A possible role for dietary lutein and zeaxanthin in visual development. Nutr. Rev. 2008, 66(12):695-702.
50. Hammond B.R., Wooten B.R. CFF Thresholds: relation to macular pigment optical density. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 2005, 25:315-319.
51. Hammond B.R., Wooten B.R. Comments on the use of Raman Spectroscopy for the in Vivo measurement of human macular pigment. Appl. Spectrosc. 2006, 60(11):1348-1349.
52. Hammond B.R., Curran-Celentano J., Judd S., Fuld K., Krinsky N.I., Wooten B.R., Snodderly D.M. Sex differences in macular pigment optical density: relation to serum and dietary patterns. Vis. Res. 1996, 36(13):2001-2012.
53. Hammond B.R., Johnson E.J., Russell R.M., Krinsky N.I., Yeum K.J., Edwards R.B., Snodderly D.M. Dietary modification of human macular pigment density. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1997, 38:1795-1801.
54. Hammond B.R., Wenzel A.J., Luther M.S., Rivera R.O., King S.J., Choate M.L. Scotopic sensitivity: relation to age, dietary patterns, and smoking status. Optom. Vis. Sci. 1998, 75:867-872.
55. Hammond B.R., Wooten B.R., Snodderly D.M. Preservation of visual sensitivity of older subjects: association with macular pigment density. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1998, 39:397-406.
56. Handelman G.J., Dratz E.A., Reay C.C., van Kuijk F.J.G.M. Carotenoids in the human macula and whole retina. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1988, 29:850-855.
57. Hansen T., Gegenfurtner K.R. Independence of color and luminance edges in natural scenes. Vis. Neuro 2009, 26:35-50.
58. Hardy P., Dumont I., et al. Oxidants, nitric oxide and prostanoids in the developing ocular vasculature: a basis for ischemic retinopathy. Cardiovasc. Res. 2000, 47(3):489-509.
59. Hargrave P.A., McDowell J.H. Rhodopsin and phototransduction: a model system for G protein-linked receptors. Faseb J. 1992, 6(6):2323-2331.
60. Hoffman D.R., Birch E.E., et al. Visual function in breast-fed term infants weaned to formula with or without long-chain polyunsaturates at 4 to 6 months: a randomized clinical trial. J. Pediatr. 2003, 142(6):669-677.
61. Hoffman D.R., Boettcher J.A., et al. Toward optimizing vision and cognition in term infants by dietary docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid supplementation: a review of randomized controlled trials. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 2009, 81(2-3):151-158.
62. Imaki H., Moretz R., et al. Retinal degeneration in 3-month-old rhesus monkey infants fed a taurine-free human infant formula. J. Neurosci. Res. 1987, 18(4):602-614.
63. Imaki H., Jacobson S.G., et al. Retinal morphology and visual pigment levels in 6- and 12-month-old rhesus monkeys fed a taurine-free human infant formula. J. Neurosci. Res. 1993, 36(3):290-304.
64. Innis S. Essential fatty acids in growth and development. Prog. Lipid Res. 1991, 30(1):39-101.
65. Innis S.M., Gilley J., et al. Are human milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids related to visual and neural development in breast-fed term infants?. J. Pediatr. 2001, 139(4):532-538.
66. Izumi-Nagai K., Nagai N., Ohgami K., Satofuka S., Ozawa Y., Tsubota K., Umezawa K., Ohno S., Oike Y., Ishida S. Macular pigment lutein is antiinflammatory in preventing choroidal neovascularization. Arterioscler Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2007, 2555-2562.
67. Johnson E.J., Hammond B.R., Yeum K.J., Qin J., Dong Wang X., Castaneda C., Snodderly D.M., Russell R.M. Relation among serum and tissue concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin and macular pigment density. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000, 71(6):1555-1562.
68. Johnson E.J., McDonald K., Caldarella S.M., Chung H.Y., Troen A.M., Snodderly D.M. Cognitive findings of an exploratory trial of docosahexaenoic acid and lutein supplementation in older women. Nutr. Neurosci. 2008, 11:75-83.
69. Kim C.B.Y., Mayer M.J. Foveal flicker sensitivity in healthy aging eyes. II. Cross-sectional aging trends from 18 through 77 years of age. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 1994, 11:1958-1969.
70. Kim S.R., Nakanishi K., Itagaki Y., Sparrow J.R. Photooxidation of A2-PE, a photoreceptor outer segment fluorophore, and protection by lutein and zeaxanthin. Exp. Eye Res. 2006, 82(5):828-839.
71. Kirschfeld K. Carotenoid pigments: their possible role in protecting against photooxidation in eyes and photoreceptor cells. Proc. R. Soc. London 1982, B216:71-85.
72. Klein R., Klein B.E.K., Moss S.E. Age-related eye disease and survival. The beaver dam eye study. Arch Ophthalmol 1995, 113:333-339.
73. Klein R.J., et al. Complement factor H polymorphism in age-related macular degeneration. Science 2005, 308:385-389.
74. Krinsky N.I., Deneke S.M. Interaction of oxygen and oxy-radicals with carotenoids. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1982, 69(1):205-210.
75. Kvansakul J., Rodriguez-Carmona M., Edgar D.F., et al. Supplementation with the carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin improves human visual performance. Ophthal Physiol. Opt. 2006, 26:362-371.
76. Lee E.H., Faulhaber D., Hanson K.M., Ding W., Peters S., Kodali S., et al. Dietary lutein reduces ultraviolet radiation-induced inflammation and immunosuppression. J. Invest. Dermatol. 2004, 122:510-517.
77. Leung I.Y., Sandstrom M.M., Zucker C.L., Neuringer M., Snodderly D.M. Nutritional manipulation of primate retinas, II: effects of age, n-3 fatty acids, lutein, and zeaxanthin on retinal pigment epithelium. Invest. Ophthal Vis. Sci. 2004, 45(9):3244-3256.
78. Litman B.J., Mitchell D.C. A role for phospholipid polyunsaturation in modulating membrane protein function. Lipids 1996, 31(Suppl.):S193-S197.
79. Luria S.M. Vision with chromatic filters. Am. J. Opt. Arch. Amer. Acad. Opt. 1972, 10:818-829.
80. Makrides M., Simmer K., et al. Erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid correlates with the visual response of healthy, term infants. Pediatr. Res. 1993, 33(4 Pt 1):425-427.
81. Margrain T.H., Boulton M., Marshall J., Sliney D.H. Do blue light filters confer protection against age-related macular degeneration. Prog. Ret. Eye Res. 2004, 23:523-531.
82. McCarty C.A., Nanjan M.B., et al. Vision impairment predicts 5 year mortality. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2001, 8(3):322-326.
83. Militante J.D., Lombardini J.B. Taurine: evidence of physiological function in the retina. Nutr. Neurosci. 2002, 5(2):75-90.
84. Mitchell D.C., Niu S.L., et al. Optimization of receptor-G protein coupling by bilayer lipid composition I: kinetics of rhodopsin-transducin binding. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276(46):42801-42806.
85. Mitchell D.C., Niu S.L., et al. DHA-rich phospholipids optimize G-Protein-coupled signaling. J. Pediatr. 2003, 143(Suppl. 4):S80-S86.
86. Mitchell D.C., Niu S.L., et al. Enhancement of G protein-coupled signaling by DHA phospholipids. Lipids 2003, 38(4):437-443.
87. Mollon J.D., Regan B.C. The spectral distribution of primate cones and of the macular pigment: matched to properties of the world?. J. Opt. Technol. 1999, 66:847-852.
88. Montgomery M.P., Kamel F., Pericak-Vance M.A., Haines J., Postel E., Agarwal A., Richards M., Scott W.K., Schmidt S. Overall Diet Quality and Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Ophthalmic Epidemiology 2010, 17(1):58-65.
89. Moriguchi T., Loewke J., Garrison M., Catalan J.N., Salem N. Reversal of docosahexaenoic acid deficiency in the rat brain, retina, liver, and serum. J. Lipid Res. 2001, 42(3):419-427.
90. Neelam K., Nolan J., Loane E., Stack J., O'Donovan O., et al. Macular pigment and ocular biometry. Vis. Res. 2006, 46:2149-2156.
91. Neuringer M., Sturman J. Visual acuity loss in rhesus monkey infants fed a taurine-free human infant formula. J. Neurosci. Res. 1987, 18(4):597-601.
92. Neuringer M., Palackal T., et al. Effects of postnatal taurine deprivation on visual cortex development in rhesus monkeys through one year of age. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1994, 359:385-392.
93. Nielson J.C., Naash M.I., Anderson R.E. The regional distribution of vitamins E and C in mature and premature human retinas. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1988, 29:22-26.
94. Niu S.L., Mitchell D.C., et al. Optimization of receptor-G protein coupling by bilayer lipid composition II: formation of metarhodopsin II-transducin complex. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276(46):42807-42811.
95. Niu S.L., Mitchell D.C., et al. Reduced G protein-coupled signaling efficiency in retinal rod outer segments in response to n-3 fatty acid deficiency. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279(30):31098-31104.
96. Nolan J.M., O'Donovan O., Kavanagh H., Mc Naughton S., Mellerio J., Stevenson M., Beatty S. Macular pigment optical density, and serum and dietary lutein and zeaxanthin, in healthy subjects with and without a family history of Age-Related Maculopathy. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2004, 45. E-Abstract 2967.
97. Nolan J.M., Stack J., O'Donovan O., Loane E., Beatty S. Risk factors for age-related maculopathy are associated with a relative lack of macular pigment. Exp. Eye Res. 2007, 84:61-74.
98. Noy N. Vitamin A. Biochemical, Physiological, and Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition 2006, 835-862. Saunders, St. Louis, U.S.A. M.H. Stipanuk (Ed.).
99. Nussbaum J.J., Pruett R.C., Delori F.C. Historic perspectives. Macular yellow pigment. The first 200 years. Retina 1981, 1(4):296-310.
100. Olmedilla B., Granado F., Blanco I., et al. Lutein, but not alpha-tocopherol, supplementation improves visual function in patients with age-related cataracts: a 2-y double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Nutrition 2003, 19(1):21-24.
101. Organisciak D.T., Wang H.M., et al. The protective effect of ascorbate in retinal light damage of rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1985, 26(11):1580-1588.
102. Peronnee S., et al. Effects of lutein on oxidative stress in the term newborn. A pilot study. Neonatology 2010, 97:36-40.
103. Plourde M., Cunnane S.C. Extremely limited synthesis of long chain polyunsaturates in adults: implications for their dietary essentiality and use as supplements. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 2007, 32(4):619-634.
104. Provis J.M., Diaz C.M., Dreher B. Ontogeny of the primate fovea: a central issue in retinal development. Prog. Neurobiol. 1998, 54:549-580.
105. Rassin D.K., Raiha N.C.R., Minoli I., Moro G. Taurine and cholesterol supplementation in the term infant: responses of growth and metabolism. J. Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1990, 14:392-397.
106. Renzi L.M., Hammond B.R. The effect of macular pigment on heterochromatic luminance contrast. Exp. Eye Res. 2010, 91(6):896-900.
107. Renzi L.M., Hammond B.R. The relation between the macular carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin, and temporal vision. Opthalm Physio Opt. 2010, 30(4):351-357.
108. Rhone M., Basu A. Phytochemicals and age-related eye diseases. Nutr. Rev. 2008, 66(8)):465-472.
109. Richer S., Stiles W., Statkute L., Pulido J., Frankowski J., Rudy D., et al. Double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of lutein and antioxidant supplementation in the intervention of atrophic age-related macular degeneration: the Veterans LAST Study (Lutein Antioxidant Supplementation Trial). Optometry 2004, 75(4):216-230.
110. Rigo J., Senterre J. Is taurine essential for the neonates?. Biol. Neonate 1977, 32:73-76.
111. Rock C.L. Carotenoids and cancer. Carotenoids 2009, 5:269-286.
112. Salem N., Wegher B., et al. Arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids are biosynthesized from their 18-carbon precursors in human infants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1996, 93(1):49-54.
113. Sandberg M.A., Gaudio A.R. Slow photostress recovery and disease severity in age-related macular degeneration. Retina 1995, 15:407-412.
114. SanGiovanni J.P., Chew E.Y. The role of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in health and disease of the retina. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 2005, 24(1):87-138.
115. SanGiovanni J.P., Berkey C.S., et al. Dietary essential fatty acids, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and visual resolution acuity in healthy fullterm infants: a systematic review. Early Hum. Dev. 2000, 57(3):165-188.
116. SanGiovanni J.P., Parra-Cabrera S., et al. Meta-analysis of dietary essential fatty acids and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids as they relate to visual resolution acuity in healthy preterm infants. Pediatrics 2000, 105(6):1292-1298.
117. SanGiovanni J.P., Chew E.Y., Clemons T.E., Ferris F.L., Gensler G., Lindblad A.S., Milton R.C., Seddon J.M., Sperduto R.D. The relationship of dietary carotenoid and vitamin A, E, and C intake with age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: AREDS Report No. 22. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2007, 125:1225-1232.
118. Sangiovanni J.P., Agron E., Meleth A.D., Reed G.F., Sperduto R.D., Clemons T.E., et al. {omega}-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and 12-y incidence of neovascular age-related macular degeneration and central geographic atrophy: AREDS report 30, a prospective cohort study from the age-related eye disease study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 90:1601-1607.
119. Schalch W., Bone R., Landrum J. The functional role of xanthophylls in the primate retina. Carotenoids: Physical, Chemical and Biological Functions and Properties 2009, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. J. Landrum (Ed.).
120. Sies H., Stahl W., Sundquist A.R. Antioxidant functions of vitamins. Vitamins E and C, beta-carotene, and other carotenoids. Ann. N. Y Acad. Sci. 1992, 30(669):7-20.
121. Simmer K., Patole S.K., et al. Longchain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants born at term. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008, 1. CD000376.
122. Simmer K., Schulzke S.M., et al. Longchain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008, 1. CD000375.
123. Smith A.D., Smith S.M., de Jager C.A., Whitbread P., Johnston C., et al. Homocysteine-Lowering by B vitamins slows the rate of accelerated brain atrophy in mild cognitive impairment: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE 2010, 5(9):e12244. 10.1371/journal.pone.0012244.
124. Snodderly D.M. Evidence for protection against age-related macular degeneration by carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995, 62:1448S-1461S.
125. Snodderly D.M., Auran J.D., Delori F.C. The macular pigment. II. Spatial distribution in primate retinas. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1984, 25:674-685.
126. Sommerburg O.G., Siems W.G., et al. Lutein and zeaxanthin are associated with photoreceptors in the human retina. Curr. Eye Res. 1999, 19(6):491-495.
127. Sparrow J.R., Vollmer-Snarr H.R., et al. A2E-epoxides damage DNA in retinal pigment epithelial cells. Vitamin E and other antioxidants inhibit A2E-epoxide formation. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278(20):18207-18213.
128. Stahl W., Sies H. Carotenoids and protection against solar UV radiation. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 2002, 15(5):291-296.
129. Stillwell W. Docosahexaenoic acid: membrane properties of a unique fatty acid. Chem. Phys. Lipids 2003, 126:1-27.
130. Stillwell W., Wassall S.R. Docosahexaenoic acid: membrane properties of a unique fatty acid. Chem. Phys. Lipids 2003, 126:1-27.
131. Stoltzfus R.J., Underwood B.A. Breast-milk vitamin A as an indicator of the vitamin A status of women and infants. Bull. World Health Organ. 1995, 73:703-711.
132. Stoyanovski D.A., Goldman R., Darrow R.M., Organisciak D.T., Kagan V.E. Endogenous ascorbate regenerates vitamin E in the retina directly and in combination with exogenous dihydrolipoic acid. Curr. Eye Res. 1995, 14:181-189.
133. Street D.A., Javitt J.C. National five-year mortality after inpatient cataract. Am J Ophthalmol 1992, 113:263-268.
134. Stringham J., Hammond B.R. The glare hypothesis of macular pigment function. Optom. Vis. Sci. 2007, 84:859-864.
135. Stringham J., Hammond B.R. Macular pigment and visual performance under glare conditions. Optom. Vis. Sci. 2008, 85:82-88.
136. Stringham J.M., Fuld K., Wenzel A.J. Action spectrum for photophobia. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 2003, 20:1852-1858.
137. Stringham J.M., Fuld K., Wenzel A.J. Spatial properties of photophobia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2004, 45:3838-3848.
138. Strobel M., Tinz J., et al. The importance of beta-carotene as a source of vitamin A with special regard to pregnant and breastfeeding women. Eur J Nutr 2007, 46(Suppl 1):I1-I20.
139. Stryer L. Cyclic GMP cascade of vision. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 1986, 9:87-119.
140. Stryer L. Visual excitation and recovery. J. Biol. Chem. 1991, 266(17):10711-10714.
141. Sturman J.A. Taurine in development. J. Nutr. 1988, 118(10):1169-1176.
142. Sugita Y. Experience in early infancy is indispensable for color perception. Curr. Biol. 2004, 14:1267-1271.
143. Tan J.S.L., Wang J.J., Flood V., Rochtchina E., Smith W., Mitchell P. Dietary antioxidants and the long-term incidence of age-related macular degeneration: the blue Mountains eye study. Ophthalmology 2008, 115:334-341.
144. Thomson L.R., Toyoda Y., Langner A., Delori F.C., Garnett K.M., et al. Elevated retinal zeaxanthin and prevention of light-induced photoreceptor cell death in quail. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43(11):3538-3549.
145. Trumbo P.R., Ellwood K.C. Lutein and zeaxanthin intakes and risk of age-related macular degeneration and cataracts: an evaluation using the Food and Drug Administration's evidence-based review system for health claims. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. November 1 2006, 84(5):971-974.
146. Uauy R.D., Birch D.G., et al. Effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on retinal function of very-low-birth-weight neonates. Pediatr. Res. 1990, 28(5):485-492.
147. Uauy R., Mena P., et al. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid formation in neonates: effect of gestational age and intrauterine growth. Pediatr. Res. 2000, 47(1):127-135.
148. Underwood B.A., Arthur P. The contribution of vitamin A to public health. Faseb J. 1996, 10(9):1040-1048.
149. Vinton N.E., Heckenlively J.R., Laidlaw S.A., Martin D.A., Foxman S.R., Ament M.E., Kopple J.D. Visual function in patients undergoing long-term total parenteral nutrition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1990, 52:895-902.
150. Vitale S., West S., Muñoz B., et al. Watermen Study II: mortality and baseline prevalence of nuclear opacity. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1992, 33:S1097.
151. Walls G.L., Judd H.D. Intra-ocular color filters of vertebrates. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 1933, 17:641-725.
152. Wang X., Quinn P.J. Vitamin E and its function in membranes. Prog. Lipid Res. 1999, 38:309-336.
153. Wenzel A.J., Stringham J.M., Fuld K., Curran-Celentano J. Macular pigment optical density and photophobia light threshold. Vis. Res. 2006, 46:4615-4622.
154. Werner J.S. Visual problems of the retina during ageing: compensation mechanisms and colour constancy across the life span. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 1996, 15:621-645.
155. Whitehead A.J., Mares J.A., Danis R.P. Macular pigment: a review of current knowledge. Arch. Ophtalmol 2006, 124:1038-1045.
156. Global Prevalence of Vitamin A Deficiency in Populations at Risk 1995-2005 1999, WHO, WHO Global Database Vitamin A Deficiency. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241598019_eng.
157. Wing G.L., Blanchard G.C., Weiter J.J. The topography and age relationship of lipofuscin concentration in the retinal pigment epithelium. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1978, 17(7):601-607.
158. Wolbarsht M.L. The function of intraocular color filters. Fed. Proc. 1976, 35:44-50.
159. Wolffsohn J.S., Cochrane A.L., Khoo H., Yochimitsu Y., Wu S. Contrast is enhanced by yellow lenses because of selective reduction of short-wavelength light. Optom. Vis. Sci. 2000, 77(2):73-81.
160. Wooten B.R., Hammond B.R. Macular pigment: influences on visual acuity and visibility. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 2002, 21:225-240.
161. Wyszecki G., Stiles W.S. Color Science 1982, Wiley, New York. second ed.
162. Yeum K.-Y., Taylor A., Tang G., Russell R.M. Measurement of carotenoids, retinoids and tocopherols in human lenses. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1995, 36:2756-2761.
163. Young R.W. The renewal of rod and cone outer segments in the rhesus monkey. J. Cell Biol. 1971, 49(2):303-318.
164. Young R.W. Age-Related Cataract 1991, Oxford University Press, NY.
165. Yuhas R., Pramuk K., et al. Human milk fatty acid composition from nine countries varies most in DHA. Lipids 2006, 41(9):851-858.
166. Zelikovic J., Chesney R.W., Friedman A.L., Ahfors C.E. Taurine depletion in very low birth weight infants receiving prolonged total partenteral nutrition. Role of renal immaturity. J. Pediatr. 1990, 116:301-306.