Older and newer media: Patterns of use and effects on adolescents' health and well-being

Journal of Research on Adolescence

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 95-113

  Brown, Jane D ^a   Bobkowski, Piotr S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79951572238     PISSN: 10508392     EISSN: 15327795     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00717.x     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. Agliata, D., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2004). The impact of media exposure on males' body image. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 7-22.
2. Aikat, D. (2004). Streaming violent genres online: Visual images in music videos on BET.com, Country.com, MTV.com, and VH1.com. Popular Music and Society, 27, 221-240.
3. Aloise-Young, P. A., Slater, M. D., & Cruickshank, C. C. (2006). Mediators and moderators of magazine advertisement effects on adolescent cigarette smoking. Journal of Health Communication, 11, 281-300.
4. Anderson, C. A., Benjamin, A. J., Jr., & Bartholow, B. (1998). Does the gun pull the trigger? Automatic priming effects of weapon pictures and weapon names. Psychological Science, 9, 308-314.
5. Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., et al. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 81-110.
6. Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12, 353-359.
7. Anderson, C. A., & Carnagey, N. L. (2004). Violent evil and the general aggression model. In A. G. Miller (Ed.), Social psychology of good and evil (pp. 168-192). New York, NY: Guilford.
8. Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 772-790.
9. Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Buckley, K. E. (2007). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: Theory, research, and public policy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
10. Austin, E. A., Chen, Y., Pinkleton, B. E., & Johnson, J. Q. (2006). Benefits and costs of Channel One in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training. Pediatrics, 117, 423-433.
11. Austin, E. W., Chen, M., & Grube, J. W. (2006). How does alcohol advertising influence underage drinking? The role of desirability, identification and skepticism. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 376-384.
12. Bachen, C. M., & Illouz, E. (1996). Imagining romance: Young people's cultural models of romance and love. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 13, 179-308.
13. Baker, C. N. (2005). Images of women's sexuality in advertisements: A content analysis of Black- and White-oriented women's and men's magazines. Sex Roles, 52, 13-27.
14. Ballard, M. E., Hamby, R. E., Panee, C. D., & Nivens, E. E. (2006). Repeated exposure to video game play results in decreased blood pressure responding. Media Psychology, 8, 323-341.
15. Bandura, A. (2009). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 94-124). New York, NY: Routledge.
16. Banerjee, S. C., & Greene, K. (2006). Analysis versus production: Adolescent cognitive and attitudinal responses to antismoking interventions. Journal of Communication, 56, 773-794.
17. Banerjee, S. C., & Greene, K. (2007). Antismoking initiatives: Effects of analysis versus production media literacy interventions on smoking-related attitude, norm, and behavioral intentions. Health Communication, 22, 37-48.
18. Bartholow, B. D., Bushman, B. J., & Sestir, M. A. (2006). Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 532-539.
19. Biener, L., Ji, M., Gilpin, E. A., & Albers, A. B. (2004). The impact of emotional, tone, message, and broadcast parameters in youth anti-smoking advertisements. Journal of Health Communication, 9, 259-274.
20. Bleakley, A., Hennessy, M., Fishbein, M., & Jordan, A. (2008). It works both ways: The relationship between exposure to sexual content in the media and adolescent sexual behavior. Media Psychology, 11, 443-461.
21. Bloch, A. B., Mowery, P. D., Caraballo, R. S., Malarcher, A. M., Pechacek, T., Husten, C. G., et al. (2005). Tobacco use, access, and exposure to tobacco in media among middle and high school students-United States, 2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 54, 297-301.
22. Brown, J. D. (Ed.). (2009). Managing the media monster: The influence of media from television to text messages on teen sexual behavior and attitudes. Washington, DC: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy.
23. Brown, J. D., & L'Engle, K. L. (2009). X-rated: Sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with U.S. early adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit media. Communication Research, 36, 129-151.
24. Brown, J. D., L'Engle, K. L., Pardun, C. J., Guo, G., Kenneavy, K., & Jackson, C. (2006). Sexy media matter: Exposure to sexual content in music, movies, television, and magazines predicts Black and While adolescents' sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 117, 1018-1027.
25. Brown, J. D., & Pardun, C. J. (2004). Little in common: Racial and gender differences in adolescents' television diets. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 48, 266-278.
26. Bryant, J., & Oliver, M. B. (Eds.). (2009). Media effects: Advances in theory and research (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
27. Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist, 56, 477-489.
28. Calvert, S. (2008). Children as consumers: Advertising and marketing. The Future of Children: Children and Electronic Media, 18, 205-234.
29. Carnagey, N. L., Anderson, C. A., & Bartholow, B. D. (2008). Media violence and social neuroscience: New questions and new opportunities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 178-182.
30. Carnagey, N. L., Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2007). The effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 489-496.
31. Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth. (2008). Youth exposure to alcohol advertising on television, 2001 to 2007. Washington, DC: Author.
32. Chandra, A., Martino, S., Collins, R., Elliott, M., Berry, S., Kanouse, D., et al. (2008). Does watching sex on television predict teen pregnancy? Findings from a national longitudinal survey of youth. Pediatrics, 122, 1047-1054.
33. Charlesworth, A., & Glantz, S. (2005). Smoking in the movies increases adolescent smoking: A review. Pediatrics, 116, 1516-1528.
34. Chester, J., & Montgomery, K. (2007). Interactive food and beverage marketing: Targeting children and youth in the digital age. Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Media Studies Group.
35. Christenson, P. G., Henriksen, L., & Roberts, D. F. (2000). Substance use in popular prime-time television. Washington, DC: Office of National Drug Control Policy.
36. Clark, L. S. (2005). The constant contact generation: Exploring teen friendship networks online. In S. R. Mazzarella (Ed.), Girl side web: Girls, the Internet, and the negotiation of identity (pp. 203-221). New York, NY: Peter Lang.
37. Collins, R. L., Ellickson, P. L., McCaffrey, D., & Hambarsoomians, K. (2007). Early adolescent exposure to alcohol advertising and its relationship to underage drinking. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 527-534.
38. Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Berry, S. H., Kanouse, D. E., Kunkel, D., Hunter, S. B., et al. (2004). Watching sex on television predicts adolescents initiation of sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 114, e280-e289.
39. David-Ferdon, C., & Hertz, M. F. (2007). Electronic media, violence, and adolescents: An emerging public health problem. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S1-S5.
40. Derzon, J. H., & Lipsey, M. W. (2002). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of mass communication for changing substance use knowledge, attitudes and behavior. In W. D. Crano & M. Burgoon (Eds.), Mass media and drug prevention: Classic and contemporary theories and research (pp. 231-258). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
41. Farrar, K. M., Krcmar, M., & Nowak, K. L. (2006). Contextual features of violent video games, mental models, and aggression. Journal of Communication, 56, 387-405.
42. Farrelly, M. C., Niederdeppe, J., & Yarsevich, J. (2003). Youth tobacco prevention mass media campaigns: Past, present, and future directions. Tobacco Control, 12, i35-i47.
43. Farris-Berg, K., & Granofsky, S. (2009). Students Speak Out.org: A social network for youth civic engagement. The Journal of Media Literacy, 55, 34-37.
44. Federal Trade Commission. (2008). Marketing food to children and adolescents: A review of industry expenditures, activities, and self-regulation. Washington, DC: Author.
45. Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K. J., & Wolak, J. (2000). Online victimization: A report on the nation's youth. Alexandria, VA: National Center for Missing & Exploited Children.
46. Fisher, D. A., Hill, D. L., Grube, J. W., & Gruber, E. L. (2007). Gay, lesbian, and bisexual content on television: A quantitative analysis across two seasons. Journal of Homosexuality, 52, 167-188.
47. Fouts, G., & Buggraf, K. (2000). Television situation comedies: Female weight, male negative comments, and audience reactions. Sex Roles, 42, 925-932.
48. Fouts, G., & Vaughan, K. (2002). Television situation comedies: Male weight, negative references, and audience reactions. Sex Roles, 46, 439-442.
49. Gantz, W., Schwartz, N., Angelini, J., & Rideout, V. (2007). Food for thought: Television food advertising to children in the United States. Menlo Park, CA: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.
50. Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. R., & Walsh, D. A. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviors, and school performance. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 5-22.
51. Gilpin, E. A., White, M. M., Messer, K., & Pierce, J. P. (2007). Receptivity to tobacco advertising and promotions among young adolescents as a predictor of established smoking in adulthood. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 1489-1495.
52. Glantz, S. A., Kacirk, K. W., & McCulloch, C. (2004). Back to the future: Smoking in movies in 2002 compared with 1950 levels. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 261-263.
53. Glascock, J. (2001). Gender roles on prime-time network television: Demographics and behaviors. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 45, 656-669.
54. Greenberg, B. S., Eastin, M., Hofschire, L., Lachlan, K., & Brownell, K. D. (2003). Portrayals of overweight and obese individuals on commercial television. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1342-1348.
55. Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2002). The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 1-16.
56. Gross, E. F. (2004). Adolescent Internet use: What we expect, what teens report. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 633-649.
57. Gross, E. F., Juvonen, J., & Gable, S. L. (2002). Internet use and well-being in adolescence. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 75-90.
58. Gross, L. (1994). What is wrong with this picture? Lesbian women and gay men on television. In R. J. Ringer (Ed.), Queer words, queer images: Communication and the construction of homosexuality (pp. 143-156). New York, NY: New York University Press.
59. Gruber, E. L., Thau, H. M., Hill, D. L., Fisher, D. A., & Gruber, J. W. (2005). Alcohol, tobacco and illicit substances in music videos: A content analysis of prevalence and genre. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37, 81-83.
60. Gunther, A. C., Bolt, D., Borzekowski, D. L. G., Liebhart, J. L., & Dillard, J. P. (2006). Presumed influence on peer norms: How mass media indirectly affect adolescent smoking. Journal of Communication, 56, 52-68.
61. Hamilton, J. (1998). Channeling violence: The economic market for violent television programming. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
62. Harrison, K., & Hefner, V. (2008). Media, body image, and eating disorders. In S. L. Calvert & B. J. Wilson (Eds.), The handbook of children, media, and development (pp. 381-406). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
63. Herrett-Skjellum, J., & Allen, M. (1996). Television programming and sex stereotyping: A meta-analysis. Communication Yearbook, 19, 157-185.
64. Hetsroni, A. (2007). Four decades of violent content on prime-time network programming: A longitudinal meta-analytic review. Journal of Communication, 57, 759-784.
65. Holmes, B. M. (2007). In search of my "one-and-only ": Romance-oriented media and beliefs in romantic relationship destiny. Electronic Journal of Communication, 17 (3).
66. Horst, H. A., Herr-Stephenson, B., & Robinson, L. (2009). Media ecologies. In M. Ito et al. (Eds.), Hanging out, messing around, and geeking out (pp. 29-78). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
67. Huesmann, L. R. (2007). The impact of electronic media violence: Scientific theory and research. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S6-S13.
68. Huesmann, L. R., & Kirwil, L. (2007). Why observing violence increases the risk of violent behavior by the observer. In D. J. Flannery, A. T. Vazsonyi, & I. D. Waldman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of violent behavior and aggression (pp. 545-570). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
69. Huesmann, L. R., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C., & Eron, L. D. (2003). Longitudinal relations between children's exposure to TV violence and their aggressive and violent behavior in young adulthood: 1977-1992. Developmental Psychology, 39, 201-221.
70. Institute of Medicine. (2006). Food marketing to children and youth: Threat or opportunity ? Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
71. Johansson, A., & Götestam, K. G. (2004). Internet addiction: Characteristics of a questionnaire and prevalence in Norwegian youth (12-18 years). Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 45, 223-229.
72. Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Smailes, E. M., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2002). Television viewing and aggressive behavior during adolescence and adulthood. Science, 295, 2468-2471.
73. Joint Statement on the Impact of Entertainment Violence on Children. (2000). Retrieved from
74. Kaltiala-Heino, R., Lintonen, T., & Rimpela, A. (2004). Internet addiction? Potentially problematic use of the Internet in a population of 12-18 year-old adolescents. Addiction Research and Theory, 12, 89-96.
75. Kim, J. L., Sorsoli, C. L., Collins, K., Zylbergold, B. A., Schooler, D., & Tolman, D. L. (2007). From sex to sexuality: Exposing the heterosexual script on primetime network television. Journal of Sex Research, 44, 145-157.
76. Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S22-S30.
77. Kunkel, D. (2001). Children and television advertising. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), The handbook of children and the media (pp. 375-394). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
78. Kunkel, D., Eyal, K., Donnerstein, E., Farrar, K. M., Biely, E., & Rideout, V. J. (2007). Sexual socialization messages on entertainment television: Comparing content trends 1997-2002. Media Psychology, 9, 595-622.
79. Lauzen, M. M., & Dozier, D. M. (2004). Evening the score in prime time: The relationship between behind-the-scenes women and on-screen portrayals in the 2002-2003 season. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 48, 484-500.
80. Lenhart, A., Arafeh, S., Smith, A., & Macgill, A. R. (2008). Writing, technology, and teens. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project.
81. Lenhart, A., Kahne, J., Middaugh, E., Macgill, A. R., Evans, C., & Vitak, J. (2008). Teens, video games, and civics. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project.
82. Levine, M. P., & Harrison, K. (2009). Effects of media on eating disorders and body image. In J. Bryant & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 490-516). New York, NY: Routledge.
83. Macgill, A. R. (2007). Parent and teenager Internet use. Data Memo. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project.
84. MarketingVOX (2007, June 29). By 2011, teen market shrinks, spending clout soars to $200 billion. Retrieved from
85. Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Strachman, A., Kanouse, D. E., & Berry, S. H. (2006). Exposure to degrading versus nondegrading music lyrics and sexual behavior among youth. Pediatrics, 118, e430-e441.
86. Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., Kanouse, D. E., Elliott, M., & Berry, S. H. (2005). Social cognitive processes mediating the relationship between exposure to television's sexual content and adolescents' sexual behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 914-924.
87. Mazur, M., & Emmers-Sommer, T. (2002). The effect of movie portrayals on audience attitudes about nontraditional families and sexual orientation. Journal of Homosexuality, 44, 157-179.
88. Milbrath, C., Ohlson, B., & Eyre, S. L. (2009). Analyzing cultural models in adolescent accounts of romantic relationships. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19, 313-351.
89. Miller, C. H., Burgoon, M., Grandpre, J. R., & Alvaro, E. M. (2006). Identifying principal risk factors for the initiation of adolescent smoking behaviors: The significance of psychological reactance. Health Communication, 19, 241-252.
90. Montgomery, K. C. (2007). Generation digital: Politics, commerce, and childhood in the age of the Internet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
91. Moore, E. (2006). It's child's play: Advergaming and the online marketing of food to children. Menlo Park, CA: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.
92. Moreno, M. A., Parks, M. R., Zimmerman, F. J., Brito, T. E., & Christakis, D. C. (2009). Display of health risk behaviors on MySpace by adolescents: Prevalence and associations. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 163, 27-34.
93. National Association for Media Literacy Education. (n.d.). Definitions. Retrieved from
94. Niederdeppe, J., Davis, K. C., Farrelly, M. C., & Yaresevich, J. (2007). Stylistic features, need for sensation, and confirmed recall of national smoking prevention advertisements. Journal of Communication, 57, 272-292.
95. Noar, S. (2006). A 10-year retrospective of research in health mass media campaigns: Where do we go from here? Journal of Health Communication, 11, 21-42.
96. Noll, J. G., Shenk, C. E., Barnes, J. E., & Putnam, F. W. (2009). Childhood abuse, avatar choices, and other risk factors associated with Internet-initiated victimization of adolescent girls. Pediatrics, 123, e1078-e1083.
97. Ogden, C., Carroll, M., & Flegal, K. (2008). High body mass index for age among U.S. children and adolescents, 2003-2006. Journal of the American Medical Association, 299, 2401-2405.
98. Orwin, R., Cadell, D., Chu, A., Kalton, G., Maklan, D., Morin, C., et al. (2004). Evaluation of the National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign: 2004 report of findings. Rockville, MD: Westat.
99. Paik, H., & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on anti-social behavior: A meta-analysis. Communication Research, 21, 516-546.
100. Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., Stephenson, M. T., Hoyle, R. H., & Donohew, L. (2007). Effects of the Office of National Drug Control Policy's Marijuana Initiative Campaign on high-sensation-seeking adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 1644-1649.
101. Pardun, C. J., L'Engle, K. L., & Brown, J. D. (2005). Linking exposure to outcomes: Early adolescents' consumption of sexual content in six media. Mass Communication and Society, 8, 75-91.
102. Pechmann, C., Zhao, G., Goldberg, M. E., & Reibling, E. T. (2003). What to convey in antismoking advertisements for adolescents: The use of protection motivation theory to identify effective message themes. Journal of Marketing, 67, 1-18.
103. Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2006). Adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit material on the Internet. Communication Research, 33, 178-204.
104. Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2008a). Adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit Internet material and sexual preoccupancy: A three-wave panel study. Media Psychology, 11, 207-234.
105. Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2008b). Adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit Internet material, sexual uncertainty, and attitudes toward uncommitted sexual exploration. Is there a link? Communication Research, 35, 579-601.
106. Peter, J., Valkenburg, P. M., & Schouten, A. P. (2005). Developing a model of adolescent friendship formation on the Internet. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 8, 423-430.
107. Pierce, J. P., Distefan, J. M., Jackson, C., White, M. M., & Gilpin, E. A. (2002). Does tobacco marketing undermine the influence of recommended parenting in discouraging adolescents from smoking? American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 73-81.
108. Pinkelton, B. E., Austin, E. W., Cohen, M., Miller, A., & Fitzgerald, E. (2007). A statewide evaluation of the effectiveness of media literacy training to prevent tobacco use among adolescents. Health Communication, 21, 23-34.
109. Popkin, B. (2009). The world is fat: The fads, trends, policies, and products that are fattening the human race. New York, NY: Penguin.
110. Powell, L., Szczypka, G., & Chaloupka, F. (2007). Adolescent exposure to food advertising on television. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, S251-S256.
111. Primack, B.A, Gold, M. A., Land, S. R., & Fine, M. J. (2006). Association of cigarette smoking and media literacy about smoking among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Medicine, 39, 465-472.
112. Randolph, W., & Viswanath, K. (2004). Lessons learned from public health mass media campaigns: Marketing health in a crowded media world. Annual Review of Public Health, 25, 419-437.
113. Rich, M., Woods, E. R., Goodman, E., Emans, S. J., & DuRant, R. H. (1998). Aggressors or victims: Gender and race in music video violence. Pediatrics, 101, 669-674.
114. 2: Media in the lives of 8-18 year-olds. Menlo Park, CA: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.
115. Rivadeneyra, R., & Lebo, M. J. (2008). The association between television-viewing behaviors and adolescent dating role attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 291-305.
116. Roberts, D. F., Foehr, U. G., & Rideout, V. J. (2005). Generation M: Media in the Lives of 8-18-year-olds. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.
117. Robinson, T. N., Wilde, M. L., Navracruz, L. C., Haydel, K. F., & Varady, A. (2001). Effects of reducing children's television and videogame use on aggressive behavior: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 155, 17-23.
118. Rossler, P., & Brosius, H. (2001). Do talk shows cultivate adolescents' views of the world? A prolonged-exposure experiment. Journal of Communication, 51, 143-163.
119. Ryan, E. L., & Hoerrner, K. L. (2004). Let your conscience be your guide: Smoking and drinking in Disney's animated classics. Mass Communication and Society, 7, 261-278.
120. Sargent, J. D., Stoolmiller, M., Worth, K. A., Cin, S. D., Wills, T. A., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2007). Exposure to smoking depictions in movies: Its association with established adolescent smoking. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 849-856.
121. Sargent, J. D., Wills, T. A., Stoolmiller, M., Gibson, J., & Gibbons, F. X. (2006). Alcohol use in motion pictures and its relation with early-onset teen drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67, 54-65.
122. Scharrer, E. (2004). Virtual violence: Gender and aggression in video game advertisements. Mass Communication and Society, 7, 393-412.
123. Scharrer, E., & Leone, R. (2008). First-person shooters and the third-person effect. Human Communication Research, 34, 210-233.
124. Shen, L., Monahan, J. L., Rhodes, N., & Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R. (2009). The impact of attitude accessibility and decision style on adolescents' biased processing of health-related public service announcements. Communication Research, 36, 104-128.
125. Signorielli, N. (2003). Prime-time violence 1993-2001: Has the picture really changed? Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 47, 36-57.
126. Signorielli, N., & Kahlenberg, N. (2001). Television's world of work in the nineties. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 45, 4-22.
127. Slater, M. D. (2007). Reinforcing spirals: The mutual influence of media selectivity and media effects and their impact on individual behavior and social identity. Communication Theory, 17, 281-303.
128. Slater, M. D., Henry, K. L., Swaim, R., & Anderson, L. (2003). Violent media content and aggression in adolescents: A downward-spiral model. Communication Research, 30, 713-736.
129. Slater, M. D., Henry, K. L., Swaim, R. C., & Cardador, J. M. (2004). Vulnerable teens, vulnerable times: How sensation seeking, alienation, and victimization moderate the violent media content-aggressiveness relation. Communication Research, 31, 642-668.
130. Smith, S. L., & Granados, A. D. (2009). Content patterns and effects surrounding sex-role stereotyping on television and film. In J. Bryant & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 342-361). New York, NY: Routledge.
131. Snyder, L. B., & Hamilton, M. A. (2002). A meta-analysis of U.S. health campaign effects on behavior: Emphasize enforcement, exposure and new information, and beware the secular trend. In R. C. Hornik (Ed.), Public health communication: Evidence for behavior change (pp. 357-384). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
132. Snyder, L. B., Milici, F. F., Slater, M., Sun, H., & Strizhakova, Y. (2006). Effects of alcohol advertising exposure on drinking among youth. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 160, 18-24.
133. Sparks, G. G., Sparks, C. W., & Sparks, E. A. (2009). Media violence. In J. Bryant & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 269-287). New York, NY: Routledge.
134. Stacy, A. W., Zogg, J. B., Unger, J. B., & Dent, C. W. (2004). Exposure to televised alcohol ads and subsequent adolescent alcohol use. American Journal of Health Behavior, 28, 496-509.
135. Steele, J. R. (1999). Teenage sexuality and media practice: Factoring in the influences of family, friends, and school. The Journal of Sex Research, 36, 331-341.
136. Steele, J. R., & Brown, J. D. (1995). Adolescent room culture: Studying media in the context of everyday life. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 5, 551-576.
137. Steinhauer, J. (2008, November 26). Verdict in MySpace suicide case. New York Times, p. A25.
138. Stern, S. R. (2002). Sexual selves on the World Wide Web: Adolescent girls' home pages as sites or self-expression. In J. D. Brown, J. R. Steele, & K. Walsh-Childers (Eds.), Sexual teens, sexual media: Investigating media's influence on adolescent sexuality (pp. 265-285). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
139. Stern, S. R. (2005). Messages from teens on the big screen: Smoking, drinking, and drug use in teen-centered films. Journal of Health Communication, 10, 331-346.
140. Tanner, L. R., Haddock, S. A., Zimmerman, T. S., & Lund, L. K. (2003). Images of couples and families in Disney feature-length animated films. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 31, 355-373.
141. Thompson, K. M., & Yakota, F. (2001). Depiction of alcohol, tobacco, and other substances in G-rated animated feature films. Pediatrics, 107, 1369-1374.
142. Thomsen, S. R., McCoy, J. K., Gustafson, R., & Williams, H. M. (2002). Motivations for reading beauty and fashion magazines and anorexic risk in college-age women. Media Psychology, 4, 113-135.
143. van den Eijnden, R. J. J. M., Meerkerk, G., Vermulst, A. A., Spijkerman, R., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2008). Online communication, compulsive Internet use, and psychological well-being among adolescents: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 44, 655-665.
144. Vandewater, E. A., & Cummings, H. (2008). Media use and childhood obesity. In S. L. Calvert & B. J. Wilson (Eds.), The handbook of children, media, and development (pp. 355-380). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
145. Ward, L. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults' attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 1-15.
146. Ward, L. M. (2003). Understanding the role of entertainment media in the sexual socialization of American youth: A review of empirical research. Developmental Review, 23, 347-388.
147. Ward, L. M. (2005). Talking about sex: Common themes about sexuality in the prime-time television programs children and adolescents view most. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 595-615.
148. Ward, L. M., & Friedman, K. (2006). Using TV as a guide: Associations between television viewing and adolescents' sexual attitudes and behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 133-156.
149. Warren, A. (2004). Television and cable factbook, 72(2). New York, NY: Warren Communications News.
150. Wartella, E., & Robb, M. (2008). Historical and recurring concerns about children's use of the mass media. In S. L. Calvert & B. J. Wilson (Eds.), The handbook of children, media, and development (pp. 7-26). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
151. Wellman, R. J., Sugarman, D. B., DiFranza, J. R., & Winickoff, J. P. (2006). The extent to which tobacco marketing and tobacco use in films contribute to children's use of tobacco: A meta-analysis. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 160, 1285-1296.
152. Williams, K. R., & Guerra, N. G. (2007). Prevalence and predictors of Internet bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S14-S21.
153. Wolak, J., Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K. J., & Ybarra, M. L. (2008). Online "predators" and their victims: Myths, realities, and implications for prevention and treatment. American Psychologist, 63, 111-128.
154. Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2003). Internet sex crimes against minors: The response of law enforcement. Alexandria, VA: National Center for Missing & Exploited Children.
155. Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2006). Online victimization: 5 years later. Alexandria, VA: National Center for Missing & Exploited Children.
156. Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Does online harassment constitute bullying? An exploration of online harassment by known peers and online-only contacts. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S51-S58.
157. Ybarra, M. L., Alexander, C., & Mitchell, K. J. (2005). Depressive symptomatology, youth Internet use, and online interactions: A national survey. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 9-18.
158. Ybarra, M. L., Diener-West, M., & Leaf, P. J. (2007). Examining the overlap in Internet harassment and school bullying: Implications for school intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S42-S50.
159. Ybarra, M. L., Espelage, D. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2007). The co-occurrence of Internet harassment and unwanted sexual solicitation victimization and perpetration: Associations with psychosocial indicators. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S31-S41.
160. Zillmann, D. (1991). Television viewing and physiological arousal. In D. Zillmann & J. Bryant (Eds.), Responding to the screen: Reception and reaction processes (pp. 103-133). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
161. Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1985). Selective-exposure phenomena. In D. Zillmann & J. Bryant (Eds.), Selective exposure to communication (pp. 1-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
162. Zurbriggen, E. L., & Morgan, E. M. (2006). Who wants to marry a millionaire? Reality dating television programs, attitudes toward sex, and sexual behaviors. Sex Roles, 54, 1-17.