Pharmacotherapy and interventional treatments for secondary hyperparathyroidism: Current therapy and future challenges

Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy

Volumn 10, Issue 12, 2010, Pages 1729-1742

  Komaba, Hirotaka ^a   Shiizaki, Kazuhiro ^b,c   Fukagawa, Masafumi ^a  

^a TOKAI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

^b JICHI MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SOUTHWESTERN MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

calcimimetics; calcium sensing receptor; direct injection therapy; gene therapy; secondary hyperparathyroidism; vitamin D; vitamin D receptor

Indexed keywords

22 OXACALCITRIOL; 25 HYDROXYVITAMIN D; ALFACALCIDOL; CALCITRIOL; CINACALCET; COLECALCIFEROL; DOXERCALCIFEROL; FALECALCITRIOL; PARICALCITOL; VITAMIN D DERIVATIVE;

CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG DOSE ESCALATION; DRUG INHIBITION; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG STRUCTURE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE THERAPY; HORMONAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HYPOCALCEMIA; MORTALITY; NAUSEA; PARATHYROID GLAND; PARATHYROID HYPERPLASIA; PARATHYROIDECTOMY; PATHOGENESIS; PERCUTANEOUS ETHANOL INJECTION THERAPY; REVIEW; SECONDARY HYPERPARATHYROIDISM; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VOMITING;

ANIMALS; CALCIMIMETIC AGENTS; ETHANOL; GENE THERAPY; HUMANS; HYPERPARATHYROIDISM, SECONDARY; INJECTIONS, INTRALESIONAL; KIDNEY DISEASES; PARATHYROIDECTOMY; RENAL DIALYSIS; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VITAMIN D;

EID: 78249285954     PISSN: 14712598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/14712598.2010.518614     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Drueke TB. Cell biology of parathyroid gland hyperplasia in chronic renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000;11:1141-52
2. Fukagawa M, Nakanishi S, Kazama JJ. Basic and clinical aspects of parathyroid hyperplasia in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2006;70(Suppl 102): S3-7
3. Goodman WG, Quarles LD. Development and progression of secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic kidney disease: lessons from molecular genetics. Kidney Int 2008;74:276-88
4. Goodman WG, Goldin J, Kuizon BD, et al. Coronary-artery calcification in young adults with end-stage renal disease who are undergoing dialysis. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1478-83
5. London GM, Guerin AP, Marchais SJ, et al. Arterial media calcification in end-stage renal disease: impact on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18:1731-40
6. Block GA, Klassen PS, Lazarus JM, et al. Mineral metabolism, mortality, and morbidity in maintenance hemodialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:2208-18
7. Covic A, Kothawala P, Bernal M, et al. Systematic review of the evidence underlying the association between mineral metabolism disturbances and risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality and cardiovascular events in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009;24:1506-23
8. Brown EM, Gamba G, Riccardi D, et al. Cloning and characterization of an extracellular Ca (2+)-sensing receptor from bovine parathyroid. Nature 1993;366:575-80
9. McDonnell DP, Mangelsdorf DJ, Pike JW, et al. Molecular cloning of complementary DNA encoding the avian receptor for vitamin D. Science 1987;235(4793):1214-17
10. Chen RA, Goodman WG. The role of the calcium-sensing receptor in parathyroid gland physiology. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2004;286: F1005-11
11. Demay MB, Kiernan MS, DeLuca HF, Kronenberg HM. Sequences in the human parathyroid hormone gene that bind the 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor and mediate transcriptional repression in response to 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992;89:8097-101
12. Drueke TB, Ritz E. Treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism in CKD patients with cinacalcet and/or vitamin D derivatives. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:234-41
13. Wetmore JB, Quarles LD. Calcimimetics or vitamin D analogs for suppressing parathyroid hormone in end-stage renal disease: time for a paradigm shift? Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2009;5:24-33
14. Kitaoka M, Fukagawa M, Ogata E, et al. Reduction of functioning parathyroid cell mass by ethanol injection in chronic dialysis patients. Kidney Int 1994;46:1110-17
15. Kitaoka M, Fukagawa M, Fukuda N, et al. Direct calcitriol injections into enlarged parathyroid glands in chronic dialysis patients with severe parathyroid hyperfunction. Nephrology 1995;1:563-7
16. Shiizaki K, Hatamura I, Negi S, et al. Percutaneous maxacalcitol injection therapy regresses hyperplasia of parathyroid and induces apoptosis in uremia. Kidney Int 2003;64:992-1003
17. Shiizaki K, Negi S, Mizobuchi M, et al. Effect of percutaneous calcitriol injection therapy on secondary hyperparathyroidism in uraemic patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18(Suppl 3): iii42-iii46
18. Tonelli M, Pannu N, Manns B. Oral phosphate binders in patients with kidney failure. N Engl J Med 2010;362:1312-24
19. Hutchison AJ. Oral phosphate binders. Kidney Int 2009;75:906-14
20. Slatopolsky E, Delmez JA. Pathogenesis of secondary hyperparathyroidism. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1996;11(Suppl 3):130-5
21. Yamashita T, Yoshioka M, Itoh N. Identification of a novel fibroblast growth factor, FGF-23, preferentially expressed in the ventrolateral thalamic nucleus of the brain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000;277:494-8
22. ADHR Consortium. Autosomal dominant hypophosphataemic rickets is associated with mutations in FGF23. Nat Genet 2000;26:345-8
23. Komaba H, Fukagawa M. FGF23-parathyroid interaction: implications in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2010;77:292-8
24. Shimada T, Hasegawa H, Yamazaki Y, et al. FGF-23 is a potent regulator of vitamin D metabolism and phosphate homeostasis. J Bone Miner Res 2004;19:429-35
25. Shimada T, Mizutani S, Muto T, et al. Cloning and characterization of FGF23 as a causative factor of tumor-induced osteomalacia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:6500-5
26. Ben Dov IZ, Galitzer H, Lavi-Moshayoff V, et al. The parathyroid is a target organ for FGF23 in rats. J Clin Invest 2007;117:4003-8
27. Krajisnik T, Bjorklund P, Marsell R, et al. Fibroblast growth factor-23 regulates parathyroid hormone and 1alpha-hydroxylase expression in cultured bovine parathyroid cells. J Endocrinol 2007;195:125-31
28. Larsson T, Nisbeth U, Ljunggren O, et al. Circulating concentration of FGF-23 increases as renal function declines in patients with chronic kidney disease, but does not change in response to variation in phosphate intake in healthy volunteers. Kidney Int 2003;64:2272-9
29. Shigematsu T, Yamashita T, Fukumoto S, et al. Possible involvement of circulating fibroblast growth factor 23 in the development of secondary hyperparathyroidism associated with renal insufficiency. Am J Kidney Dis 2004;44:250-6
30. Gutierrez O, Isakova T, Rhee E, et al. Fibroblast growth factor-23 mitigates hyperphosphatemia but accentuates calcitriol deficiency in chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:2205-15
31. Sela-Brown A, Silver J, Brewer G, et al. Identification of AUF1 as a parathyroid hormone mRNA 3′-untranslated region-binding protein that determines parathyroid hormone mRNA stability. J Biol Chem 2000;275:7424-9
32. Naveh-Many T, Nechama M. Regulation of parathyroid hormone mRNA stability by calcium, phosphate and uremia. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2007;16:305-10
33. Nechama M, Uchida T, Mor Yosef-Levi I, et al. The peptidyl-prolyl isomerase Pin1 determines parathyroid hormone mRNA levels and stability in rat models of secondary hyperparathyroidism. J Clin Invest 2009;119:3102-14
34. Tominaga Y, Tanaka Y, Sato K, et al. Histopathology, pathophysiology, and indications for surgical treatment of renal hyperparathyroidism. Semin Surg Oncol 1997;13:78-86
35. Cozzolino M, Lu Y, Sato T, et al. A critical role for enhanced TGF-alpha and EGFR expression in the initiation of parathyroid hyperplasia in experimental kidney disease. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2005;289: F1096-102
36. Arcidiacono MV, Sato T, Alvarez-Hernandez D, et al. EGFR activation increases parathyroid hyperplasia and calcitriol resistance in kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:310-20
37. Arcidiacono MV, Cozzolino M, Spiegel N, et al. Activator protein 2alpha mediates parathyroid TGF-alpha self-induction in secondary hyperparathyroidism. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:1919-28
38. Fukuda N, Tanaka H, Tominaga Y, et al. Decreased 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor density is associated with a more severe form of parathyroid hyperplasia in chronic uremic patients. J Clin Invest 1993;92:1436-43
39. Kifor O, Moore FD Jr, Wang P, et al. Reduced immunostaining for the extracellular Ca2+-sensing receptor in primary and uremic secondary hyperparathyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:1598-606
40. Gogusev J, Duchambon P, Hory B, et al. Depressed expression of calcium receptor in parathyroid gland tissue of patients with hyperparathyroidism. Kidney Int 1997;51:328-36
41. Yano S, Sugimoto T, Tsukamoto T, et al. Association of decreased calcium-sensing receptor expression with proliferation of parathyroid cells in secondary hyperparathyroidism. Kidney Int 2000;58:1980-6
42. Tokumoto M, Tsuruya K, Fukuda K, et al. Reduced p21, p27 and vitamin D receptor in the nodular hyperplasia in patients with advanced secondary hyperparathyroidism. Kidney Int 2002;62:1196-207
43. Komaba H, Goto S, Fujii H, et al. Depressed expression of Klotho and FGF receptor 1 in hyperplastic parathyroid glands from uremic patients. Kidney Int 2010;77:232-8
44. Kumata C, Mizobuchi M, Ogata H, et al. Involvement of alpha-klotho and fibroblast growth factor receptor in the development of secondary hyperparathyroidism. Am J Nephrol 2010;31:230-8
45. Galitzer H, Ben-Dov IZ, Silver J, et al. Parathyroid cell resistance to fibroblast growth factor 23 in secondary hyperparathyroidism of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2010;77:211-18
46. Canalejo R, Canalejo A, Martinez-Moreno JM, et al. FGF23 Fails to inhibit uremic parathyroid glands. J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;21:1125-35
47. Nemere I, Farach-Carson MC, Rohe B, et al. Ribozyme knockdown functionally links a 1, 25 (OH) 2D3 membrane binding protein (1, 25D3-MARRS) and phosphate uptake in intestinal cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:7392-7
48. Huhtakangas JA, Olivera CJ, Bishop JE, et al. The vitamin D receptor is present in caveolae-enriched plasma membranes and binds 1 alpha, 25 (OH) 2-vitamin D3 in vivo and in vitro. Mol Endocrinol 2004;18:2660-71
49. Nguyen TM, Lieberherr M, Fritsch J, et al. The rapid effects of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 require the vitamin D receptor and influence 24-hydroxylase activity: studies in human skin fibroblasts bearing vitamin D receptor mutations. J Biol Chem 2004;279:7591-7
50. Vertino AM, Bula CM, Chen JR, et al. Nongenotropic, anti-apoptotic signaling of 1alpha, 25 (OH) 2-vitamin D3 and analogs through the ligand binding domain of the vitamin D receptor in osteoblasts and osteocytes. Mediation by Src, phosphatidylinositol 3-, and JNK kinases. J Biol Chem 2005;280:14130-7
51. Shiizaki K, Hatamura I, Imazeki I, et al. Improvement of impaired calcium and skeletal homeostasis in vitamin D receptor knockout mice by a high dose of calcitriol and maxacalcitol. Bone 2009;45:964-71
52. Slatopolsky E, Weerts C, Thielan J, et al. Marked suppression of secondary hyperparathyroidism by intravenous administration of 1, 25-dihydroxy-cholecalciferol in uremic patients. J Clin Invest 1984;74:2136-43
53. Tan AU Jr, Levine BS, Mazess RB, et al. Effective suppression of parathyroid hormone by 1 alpha-hydroxy-vitamin D2 in hemodialysis patients with moderate to severe secondary hyperparathyroidism. Kidney Int 1997;51:317-23
54. Llach F, Yudd M. Paricalcitol in dialysis patients with calcitriol-resistant secondary hyperparathyroidism. Am J Kidney Dis 2001;38(Suppl 5): S45-50
55. Akizawa T, Suzuki M, Akiba T, et al. Long-term effect of 1, 25-dihydroxy-22-oxavitamin D3 on secondary hyperparathyroidism in haemodialysis patients. One-year administration study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2002;17(Suppl 10):28-36
56. Akiba T, Marumo F, Owada A, et al. Controlled trial of falecalcitriol versus alfacalcidol in suppression of parathyroid hormone in hemodialysis patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;32:238-46
57. Fukagawa M, Kitaoka M, Yi H, et al. Serial evaluation of parathyroid size by ultrasonography is another useful marker for the long-term prognosis of calcitriol pulse therapy in chronic dialysis patient. Nephron 1994;68:221-8
58. Okuno S, Ishimura E, Kitatani K, et al. Relationship between parathyroid gland size and responsiveness to maxacalcitol therapy in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18:2613-21
59. Tominaga Y, Inaguma D, Matsuoka S, et al. Is the volume of the parathyroid gland a predictor of maxacalcitol response in advanced secondary hyperparathyroidism? Ther Apher Dial 2006;10:198-204
60. Shoji T, Shinohara K, Kimoto E, et al. Lower risk for cardiovascular mortality in oral 1alpha-hydroxy vitamin D3 users in a haemodialysis population. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2004;19:179-84
61. Teng M, Wolf M, Ofsthun MN, et al. Activated injectable vitamin D and hemodialysis survival: a historical cohort study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:1115-25
62. Wolf M, Shah A, Gutierrez O, et al. Vitamin D levels and early mortality among incident hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2007;72:1004-13
63. Teng M, Wolf M, Lowrie E, et al. Survival of patients undergoing hemodialysis with paricalcitol or calcitriol therapy. N Engl J Med 2003;349:446-56 (Pubitemid 36910023)
64. Tentori F, Hunt WC, Stidley CA, et al. Mortality risk among hemodialysis patients receiving different vitamin D analogs. Kidney Int 2006;70:1858-65
65. UMIN-CTR Clinical Trial Available from: https://upload.umin. ac.jp/cgi-open-bin/ctr/ctr.cgi? function=brows&action=brows& type=summary&recptno=R000001456&language=E [Last accessed 17 July 2010]
66. Dusso AS, Brown AJ, Slatopolsky E, Vitamin D. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2005;289: F8-28
67. Ritter CS, Armbrecht HJ, Slatopolsky E, et al. 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses PTH synthesis and secretion by bovine parathyroid cells. Kidney Int 2006;70:654-9
68. Jean G, Terrat JC, Vanel T, et al. Daily oral 25-hydroxycholecalciferol supplementation for vitamin D deficiency in haemodialysis patients: effects on mineral metabolism and bone markers. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008;23:3670-6
69. Saab G, Young DO, Gincherman Y, et al. Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and the safety and effectiveness of monthly ergocalciferol in hemodialysis patients. Nephron Clin Pract 2007;105: c132-8
70. Blair D, Byham-Gray L, Lewis E, McCaffrey S Prevalence of vitamin D [25 (OH) D] deficiency and effects of supplementation with ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) in stage 5 chronic kidney disease patients. J Ren Nutr 2008;18:375-82
71. Kalantar-Zadeh K, Kovesdy CP. Clinical outcomes with active versus nutritional vitamin D compounds in chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:1529-39
72. Molina Vila P, Sanchez Perez P, Garrigos Almerich E, et al. Marked improvement in bone metabolism parameters after increasing the dialysate calcium concentration from 2.5 to 3 mEq/L in nonhypercalcemic hemodialysis patients. Hemodial Int 2008;12:73-9
73. Navaneethan SD, Palmer SC, Craig JC, et al. Benefits and harms of phosphate binders in CKD: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Am J Kidney Dis 2009;54:619-37
74. Goodman WG, Hladik GA, Turner SA, et al. The calcimimetic agent AMG 073 lowers plasma parathyroid hormone levels in hemodialysis patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002;13:1017-24
75. Quarles LD, Sherrard DJ, Adler S, et al. The calcimimetic AMG 073 as a potential treatment for secondary hyperparathyroidism of end-stage renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003;14:575-83
76. Block GA, Martin KJ, de Francisco A L M, et al. Cinacalcet for secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients receiving hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2004;350:1516-25
77. Lindberg JS, Culleton B, Wong G, et al. Cinacalcet HCl, an oral calcimimetic agent for the treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis: a randomized double-blind, multicenter study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:800-7
78. Fukagawa M, Yumita S, Akizawa T, et al. Cinacalcet (KRN1493) effectively decreases the serum intact PTH level with favorable control of the serum phosphorus and calcium levels in Japanese dialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008;23:328-35
79. Messa P, Macario F, Yaqoob M, et al. The OPTIMA study: assessing a new cinacalcet (Sensipar/Mimpara) treatment algorithm for secondary hyperparathyroidism. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;3:36-45
80. Fishbane S, Shapiro WB, Corry DB, et al. Cinacalcet HCl and concurrent low-dose vitamin D improves treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism in dialysis patients compared with vitamin D alone: the ACHIEVE study results. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;3:1718-25
81. Komaba H, Nakanishi S, Fujimori A, et al. Cinacalcet effectively reduces parathyroid hormone secretion and gland volume regardless of pretreatment gland size in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2010. [Epub ahead of print]
82. Meola M, Petrucci I, Barsotti G Long-term treatment with cinacalcet and conventional therapy reduces parathyroid hyperplasia in severe secondary hyperparathyroidism. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009;24:982-9
83. Chin J, Miller SC, Wada M, et al. Activation of the calcium receptor by a calcimimetic compound halts the progression of secondary hyperparathyroidism in uremic rats. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000;11:903-11
84. Drueke TB, Martin D, Rodriguez M Can calcimimetics inhibit parathyroid hyperplasia? Evidence from preclinical studies. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007;22:1828-39
85. Mizobuchi M, Hatamura I, Ogata H, et al. Calcimimetic compound upregulates decreased calcium-sensing receptor expression level in parathyroid glands of rats with chronic renal insufficiency. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:2579-87
86. Komaba H, Fukagawa M Regression of parathyroid hyperplasia by calcimimetics-fact or illusion? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009;24:707-9
87. Cunningham J, Danese M, Olson K, et al. Effects of the calcimimetic cinacalcet HCl on cardiovascular disease, fracture, and health-related quality of life in secondary hyperparathyroidism. Kidney Int 2005;68:1793-800
88. Block GA, Zaun D, Smits G, et al. Cinacalcet hydrochloride treatment significantly improves all-cause and cardiovascular survival in a large cohort of hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2010;78:535-7
89. Raggi P, Chertow G, Block G, et al. Comparison of cardiovascular calcium scoring methods in the ADVANCE study [abstract]. NDT Plus 2010;3: iii556
90. Chertow GM, Pupim LB, Block GA, et al. Evaluation of Cinacalcet Therapy to Lower Cardiovascular Events (EVOLVE): rationale and design overview. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2007;2:898-905
91. Diez JJ, Miguel JL, Codoceo R, et al. Effects of cinacalcet on gastrointestinal hormone release in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism undergoing dialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008;23:1387-95
92. Lomonte C, Vernaglione L, Chimienti D, et al. Does vitamin D receptor and calcium receptor activation therapy play a role in the histopathologic alterations of parathyroid glands in refractory uremic hyperparathyroidism? Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;3:794-9
93. Tominaga Y, Numano M, Tanaka Y, et al. Surgical treatment of renal hyperparathyroidism. Semin Surg Oncol 1997;13:87-96
94. Koiwa F, Kakuta T, Tanaka R, et al. Efficacy of percutaneous ethanol injection therapy (PEIT) is related to the number of parathyroid glands in haemodialysis patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007;22:522-8
95. Onoda N, Fukagawa M, Tominaga Y, et al. New clinical guidelines for selective direct injection therapy of the parathyroid glands in chronic dialysis patients. NDT Plus 2008;1(Suppl 3):, iii26-iii28
96. Solbiati L, Giangrande A, Pra LD, et al. Percutaneous ethanol injection of parathyroid tumor under US guidance: treatment for secondary hyperparathyroidism. Radiology 1985;155:607-10
97. Shiizaki K, Negi S, Hatamura I, et al. Biochemical and cellular effects of direct maxacalcitol injection into parathyroid gland in uremic rats. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:97-108
98. Shiizaki K, Negi S, Hatamura I, et al. Direct injection of calcitriol or its analog into hyperplastic parathyroid glands induces apoptosis of parathyroid cells. Kidney Int 2006;102(Suppl): S12-15
99. Taniguchi M, Tokumoto M, Matsuo D, et al. Parathyroid growth and regression in experimental uremia. Kidney Int 2006;69:464-70
100. Shiizaki K, Fukagawa M, Yuan Q, et al. Direct injection of calcitriol or its analog improves abnormal gene expression in the hyperplastic parathyroid gland in uremia. Am J Nephrol 2008;28:59-66
101. Fukagawa M, Okazaki R, Takano K, et al. Regression of parathyroid hyperplasia by calcitriol-pulse therapy in patients on long-term dialysis. N Engl J Med 1990;323:421-2
102. Quarles LD, Yohay DA, Carroll BA, et al. Prospective trial of pulse oral versus intravenous calcitriol treatment of hyperparathyroidism in ESRD. Kidney Int 1994;45:1710-21
103. Carpten JD, Robbins CM, Villablanca A, et al. HRPT2, encoding, parafibromin, is mutated in hyperparathyroidism-jaw tumors syndrome. Nat Genet 2002;32:676-80
104. Warner J, Epstein M, Sweet A, et al. Genetic testing in familial isolated hyperparathyroidism: unexpected results and their implications. J Med Genet 2004;41:155-60
105. Tominaga Y, Kohara S, Namii Y, et al. Clonal analysis of nodular parathyroid hyperplasia in renal hyperparathyroidism. World J Surg 1996;20:744-52
106. Chudek J, Ritz E, Kovacs G Genetic abnormalities in parathyroid nodules of uremic patients. Clin Cancer Res 1998;4:211-14
107. Roussanne M-C, Gogusev J, Hory B, et al. Persistence of Ca2+-sensing receptor expression in functionally active, long-term human parathyroid cell cultures. J Bone Miner Res 1998;13:354-62
108. Tsuji K, Sawada T, Masuda A, et al. Culture of human parathyroid cells. Organ Biol 1999;6:73-80
109. Liu W, Ridefelt P, Akerstrom G, et al. Differentiation of human parathyroid cells in culture. J Endocrinol 2001;168:417-25
110. Kozarsky KF, Wilson JM. Gene therapy: adenovirus vectors. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1993;3:499-503
111. Iwasaki Y, Kakuta T, Haruguchi H, et al. Adenovirus-mediated functional gene transfer into parathyroid cells in vivo and in vitro. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18(Suppl 3):, iii18-iii22
112. Shiizaki K, Hatamura I, Fukagawa M, et al. Development of a technique for introduction of an expressed cDNA into parathyroid cells by direct injection. Endocrinology 2010;151:4031-8
113. Elbashir SM, Harborth J, Lendeckel W, et al. Duplexes of 21-nucleotide RNAs mediate RNA interference in cultured mammalian cells. Nature 2001;411:494-8
114. Martinez J, Patkaniowska A, Urlaub H, et al. Single-stranded antisense siRNAs guide target RNA cleavage in RNAi. Cell 2002;110:563-74
115. Hannon GJ RNA interference. Nature 2002;418:244-51
116. Kanai G, Kakuta T, Sawada K, et al. Suppression of parathyroid hormone production in vitro and in vivo by RNA interference. Kidney Int 2009;75:490-8
117. Nakai K, Komaba H, Fukagawa M Management of mineral and bone disorder in chronic kidney disease: quo vadis? Ther Apher Dial 2009;13(Suppl 1): S2-6
118. St Peter WL, Li Q, Liu J, et al. Cinacalcet use patterns and effect on laboratory values and other medications in a large dialysis organization, 2004 through 2006. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:354-60
119. Young EW, Albert JM, Satayathum S, et al. Predictors and consequences of altered mineral metabolism: the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study. Kidney Int 2005;67:1179-87
120. Kalantar-Zadeh K, Kuwae N, Regidor DL, et al. Survival predictability of time-varying indicators of bone disease in maintenance hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2006;70:771-80
121. Kimata N, Albert JM, Akiba T, et al. Association of mineral metabolism factors with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients: the Japan dialysis outcomes and practice patterns study. Hemodial Int 2007;11:340-8
122. Nakai S, Akiba T, Kazama J, et al. Effects of serum calcium, phosphorous, and intact parathyroid hormone levels on survival in chronic hemodialysis patients in Japan. Ther Apher Dial 2008;12:49-54
123. Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int 2009;76(Suppl 113): S1-130
124. Guideline Working Group, Japanese Society for Dialysis Therapy. Clinical practice guideline for the management of secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic dialysis patients. Ther Apher Dial 2008;12:514-25
125. Hawley C, Elder G. The CARI guidelines. Biochemical targets. Nephrology (Carlton) 2006;11(Suppl 1): S198-216
126. Jindal K, Chan CT, Deziel C, et al. Hemodialysis clinical practice guidelines for the Canadian Society of Nephrology. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17(3 Suppl 1): S1-27
127. National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for bone metabolism and disease in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2003;42(Suppl 3): S1-202
128. Kestenbaum B, Andress DL, Schwartz SM, et al. Survival following parathyroidectomy among United States dialysis patients. Kidney Int 2004;66:2010-16
129. Trombetti A, Stoermann C, Robert JH, et al. Survival after parathyroidectomy in patients with end-stage renal disease and severe hyperparathyroidism. World J Surg 2007;31:1014-21
130. Costa-Hong V, Jorgetti V, Gowdak LH, et al. Parathyroidectomy reduces cardiovascular events and mortality in renal hyperparathyroidism. Surgery 2007;142:699-703