Critical care management of patients before liver transplantation

Transplantation Reviews

Volumn 24, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 190-206

  Ford, Ryan M ^a   Sakaria, Sonali S ^a   Subramanian, Ram M ^a  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; CEFOTAXIME; INDOMETACIN; MANNITOL; OCTREOTIDE; PARACETAMOL; STEROID; TERLIPRESSIN; THIOPENTAL;

ADULT RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; ANAPHYLAXIS; APATHY; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; ASCITES; ATELECTASIS; ATTENTION DISTURBANCE; AUTOIMMUNE HEPATITIS; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BAROTRAUMA; BEHAVIOR CHANGE; BRAIN EDEMA; BRAIN PERFUSION; BRONCHOSPASM; BUDD CHIARI SYNDROME; COMA; CONFUSION; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; CONTINUOUS RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DISORIENTATION; DOPPLER ECHOGRAPHY; DRUG OVERDOSE; DYSPNEA; ECG ABNORMALITY; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; ESCHERICHIA COLI; ESOPHAGUS VARICES; EUPHORIA; FATIGUE; FATTY LIVER; FIBROSIS; HEART CATHETERIZATION; HELLP SYNDROME; HEMODYNAMICS; HEMOPTYSIS; HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY; HEPATITIS A; HEPATITIS B; HEPATOPULMONARY SYNDROME; HEPATORENAL SYNDROME; HUMAN; HYDROTHORAX; HYPERNATREMIA; HYPOTHERMIA; INTENSIVE CARE; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION; KIDNEY FAILURE; KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE; LEG EDEMA; LETHARGY; LIVER BIOPSY; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER DYSFUNCTION; LIVER FAILURE; LIVER FUNCTION; LIVER ISCHEMIA; LIVER RESECTION; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; LOADING DRUG DOSE; LUNG ARTERY PRESSURE; LUNG WEDGE PRESSURE; LYMPHOMA; MEAN ARTERIAL PRESSURE; MULTIPLE ORGAN FAILURE; MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY; MYCOSIS; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; OSMOTIC DIURESIS; OVERALL SURVIVAL; PATHOGENESIS; PATIENT CARE; PLEURA EFFUSION; PNEUMOCOCCAL INFECTION; PNEUMONIA; PORTAL HYPERTENSION; PORTOPULMONARY HYPERTENSION; PUPIL REFLEX; REVIEW; SOMNOLENCE; STAPHYLOCOCCUS; STREPTOCOCCUS; STUPOR; THORAX PAIN; UNITED STATES; URTICARIA; VOMITING; WILSON DISEASE;

EID: 77956988766     PISSN: 0955470X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.trre.2010.05.003     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. Trey C., Davidson C.S. The management of fulminant hepatic failure. Prog Liver Dis 1970, 3:282-298.
2. O'Grady J.G., Schalm S.W., Williams R. Acute liver failure: redefining the syndromes. Lancet 1993, 342:273-275.
3. Kulkarni S., Cronin D.C. Fulminant hepatic failure. Principles of critical care 2005, 1279-1287. McGraw-Hill, New York. 3rd ed. J.B. Hall, G.A. Schmidt, L.D.H. Wood (Eds.).
4. Polson J., Lee W.M. AASLD position paper: the management of acute liver failure. Hepatology 2005, 41:1179-1197.
5. Hoofnagle J.H., Carithers R.L., Shapiro C., Ascher N. Fulminant hepatic failure: summary of a workshop. Hepatology 1995, 21:240-252.
6. Lee W.M. Acute liver failure in the United States. Semin Liver Dis 2003, 23:217-226.
7. Stravitz R.T., Kramer D.J. Management of acute liver failure. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009, 6:542-553.
8. Lee W.M., Hynan L.S., et al. (Acute Liver Failure Study Group)Intravenous N-acetylcysteine improves transplant-free survival in early stage non-acetaminophen acute liver failure. Gastroenterology 2009, 137:856-864.
9. Ostapowicz G., Fontana R.J., Schiodt F.V., et al. Results of a prospective study of acute liver failure at 17 tertiary care centers in the United States. Ann Intern Med 2002, 137:947-954.
10. Riordan S.M., Williams R. Perspectives on liver failure: past and future. Semin Liver Dis 2008, 28:137-141.
11. Zimmerman H.J., Maddrey W.C. Acetaminophen (paracetamol) hepatotoxicity with regular intake of alcohol: analysis of instances of therapeutic misadventure. Hepatology 1995, 22:767-773.
12. Schiodt F.V., Rochling F.A., Casey D.L., Lee W.M. Acetaminophen toxicity in an urban county hospital. N Engl J Med 1997, 337:1112-1117.
13. Murphy N. Diagnosis and management of liver failure in the adult. Critical care medicine: principles of diagnosis and management in the adult 2008, 1575-1604. Mosby Elsevier, Philadelphia. 3rd ed. J.E. Parrillo, R.P. Dellinger (Eds.).
14. Bernal W., Donaldson P., Underhill J., Wendon J., Williams R. Tumor necrosis factor genomic polymorphism and outcome of acetaminophen (paracetamol)-induced acute liver failure. J Hepatol 1998, 29:53-59.
15. Lee W.M. Drug-induced hepatotoxicity. N Engl J Med 2003, 349:474-485.
16. Lee W.M. Etiologies of acute liver failure. Semin Liver Dis 2008, 28:142-152.
17. Prescott L.F., Illingworth R.N., Critchley J.A., Stewart M.J., Adam R.D., Proudfoot A.T. Intravenous N-acetylcystine: the treatment of choice for paracetamol poisoning. Br Med J 1979, 2:1097-1100.
18. Prescott L.F., Sutherland G.R., Park J., Smith I.J., Proudfoot A.T. Cysteamine, methionine, and penicillamine in the treatment of paracetamol poisoning. Lancet 1976, 2:109-113.
19. Douglas A.P., Hamlyn A.N., James O. Controlled trial of cysteamine in treatment of acute paracetamol (acetaminophen) poisoning. Lancet 1976, 1:111-115.
20. Smilkstein M.J., Knapp G.L., Kulig K.W., Rumack B.H. Efficacy of oral N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of acetaminophen overdose. Analysis of the national multicenter study (1976 to 1985). N Engl J Med 1988, 319:1557-1562.
21. Smilkstein M.J., Bronstein A.C., Linden C., Augenstein W.L., Kulig K.W., Rumack B.H. Acetaminophen overdose: a 48-hour intravenous N-acetylcysteine treatment protocol. Ann Emerg Med 1991, 20:1058-1063.
22. Keays R., Harrison P.M., Wendon J.A., et al. Intravenous acetylcysteine in paracetamol induced fulminant hepatic failure: a prospective controlled trial. BMJ 1991, 303:1026-1029.
23. Harrison P.M., Keays R., Bray G.P., Alexander G.J., Williams R. Improved outcome of paracetamol-induced fulminant hepatic failure by late administration of acetylcysteine. Lancet 1990, 335:1572-1573.
24. Mitchell J.R., Thorgeirsson S.S., Potter W.Z., Jollow D.J., Keiser H. Acetaminophen-induced hepatic injury: protective role of glutathione in man and rationale for therapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1974, 16:676-684.
25. Harrison P.M., Wendon J.A., Gimson A.E., Alexander G.J., Williams R. Improvement by acetylcysteine of hemodynamics and oxygen transport in fulminant hepatic failure. N Engl J Med 1991, 324:1852-1857.
26. Wendon J.A., Harrison P.M., Keays R., Gimson A.E., Alexander G.J., Williams R. Effects of vasopressor agents and epoprostenol on systemic hemodynamics and oxygen transport in fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 1992, 15:1067-1071.
27. Sklar G.E., Subramaniam M. Acetylcysteine treatment for non-acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure. Ann Pharmacother 2004, 38:498-500.
28. Yip L., Dart R.C., Hurlbut K.M. Intravenous administration of oral N-acetylcysteine. Crit Care Med 1998, 26:40-43.
29. Schmidt L.E., Knudsen T.T., Dalhoff K., Bendtsen F. Effect of acetylcysteine on prothrombin index in paracetamol poisoning without hepatocellular injury. Lancet 2002, 360:1151-1152.
30. Larsen F.S., Wendon J. Brain edema in liver failure: basic physiologic principles and management. Liver Transpl 2002, 8:983-989.
31. Kato M., Hughes R.D., Keays R.T., Williams R. Electron microscopic study of brain capillaries in cerebral edema from fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 1992, 15:1060-1066.
32. Larsen F.S., Ejlersen E., Clemmesen J.O., Kirkegaard P., Hansen B.A. Preservation of cerebral oxidative metabolism in fulminant hepatic failure: an autoregulation study. Liver Transpl Surg 1996, 2:348-353.
33. Strauss G., Hansen B.A., Kirkegaard P., Rasmussen A., Hjortrup A., Larsen F.S. Liver function, cerebral blood flow autoregulation, and hepatic encephalopathy in fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 1997, 25:837-839.
34. Ware A.J., D'Agostino A.N., Combes B. Cerebral edema: a major complication of massive hepatic necrosis. Gastroenterology 1971, 61:877-884.
35. Bernal W., Wendon J. Liver transplantation in adults with acute liver failure. J Hepatol 2004, 40:192-197.
36. Boeckx N.K., Haydon G., Rusli F., Murphy N. Multiorgan failure is the commonest cause of death in fulminant hepatic failure: a single centre experience. Liver Int 2004, 24:702-703.
37. Clemmesen J.O., Larsen F.S., Kondrup J., Hansen B.A., Ott P. Cerebral herniation in patients with acute liver failure is correlated with arterial ammonia concentration. Hepatology 1999, 29:648-653.
38. Bhatia V., Singh R., Acharya S.K. Predictive value of arterial ammonia for complications and outcome in acute liver failure. Gut 2006, 55:98-104.
39. Tofteng F., Hauerberg J., Hansen B.A., Pedersen C.B., Jorgensen L., Larsen F.S. Persistent arterial hyperammonemia increases the concentration of glutamine and alanine in the brain and correlates with intracranial pressure in patients with fulminant hepatic failure. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2006, 26:21-27.
40. Rolando N., Wade J., Davalos M., Wendon J., Philpott-Howard J., Williams R. The systemic inflammatory response syndrome in acute liver failure. Hepatology 2000, 32:734-739.
41. Vaquero J., Polson J., Chung C., et al. Infection and the progression of hepatic encephalopathy in acute liver failure. Gastroenterology 2003, 125:755-764.
42. Bernal W., Hall C., Karvellas C.J., Auzinger G., Sizer E., Wendon J. Arterial ammonia and clinical risk factors for encephalopathy and intracranial hypertension in acute liver failure. Hepatology 2007, 46:1844-1852.
43. Norenberg M.D., Rao K.V., Jayakumar A.R. Mechanisms of ammonia-induced astrocyte swelling. Metab Brain Dis 2005, 20:303-318.
44. Traber P.G., Dal Canto M., Ganger D.R., Blei A.T. Electron microscopic evaluation of brain edema in rabbits with galactosamine-induced fulminant hepatic failure: ultrastructure and integrity of the blood-brain barrier. Hepatology 1987, 7:1272-1277.
45. Tofteng F., Jorgensen L., Hansen B.A., Ott P., Kondrup J., Larsen F.S. Cerebral microdialysis in patients with fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 2002, 36:1333-1340.
46. Wendon J.A., Harrison P.M., Keays R., Williams R. Cerebral blood flow and metabolism in fulminant liver failure. Hepatology 1994, 19:1407-1413.
47. Munoz S.J. Difficult management problems in fulminant hepatic failure. Semin Liver Dis 1993, 13:395-413.
48. Lidofsky S.D., Bass N.M., Prager M.C., et al. Intracranial pressure monitoring and liver transplantation for fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 1992, 16:1-7.
49. McCashland T.M., Shaw B.W., Tape E. The American experience with transplantation for acute liver failure. Semin Liver Dis 1996, 16:427-433.
50. Davies M.H., Mutimer D., Lowes J., Elias E., Neuberger J. Recovery despite impaired cerebral perfusion in fulminant hepatic failure. Lancet 1994, 343:1329-1330.
51. Blei A.T., Olafsson S., Webster S., Levy R. Complications of intracranial pressure monitoring in fulminant hepatic failure. Lancet 1993, 341:157-158.
52. Vaquero J., Fontana R.J., Larson A.M., et al. Complications and use of intracranial pressure monitoring in patients with acute liver failure and severe encephalopathy. Liver Transpl 2005, 11:1581-1589.
53. Shami V.M., Caldwell S.H., Hespenheide E.E., Arseneau K.O., Bickston S.J., Macik B.G. Recombinant activated factor VII for coagulopathy in fulminant hepatic failure compared with conventional therapy. Liver Transpl 2003, 9:138-143.
54. Wijdicks E.F., Nyberg S.L. Propofol to control intracranial pressure in fulminant hepatic failure. Transplant Proc 2002, 34:1220-1222.
55. Donovan J.P., Shaw B.W., Langnas A.N., Sorrell M.F. Brain water and acute liver failure: the emerging role of intracranial pressure monitoring. Hepatology 1992, 16:267-268.
56. Nath F., Galbraith S. The effect of mannitol on cerebral white matter water content. J Neurosurg 1986, 65:41-43.
57. Canalese J., Gimson A.E., Davis C., Mellon P.J., Davis M., Williams R. Controlled trial of dexamethasone and mannitol for the cerebral oedema of fulminant hepatic failure. Gut 1982, 23:625-629.
58. Laffey J.G., Kavanagh B.P. Hypocapnia. N Engl J Med 2002, 347:43-53.
59. Ellis A., Wendon J. Circulatory, respiratory, cerebral, and renal derangements in acute liver failure: pathophysiology and management. Semin Liver Dis 1996, 16:379-388.
60. Ede R.J., Gimson A.E., Bihari D., Williams R. Controlled hyperventilation in the prevention of cerebral oedema in fulminant hepatic failure. J Hepatol 1986, 2:43-51.
61. Murphy N., Auzinger G., Bernel W., Wendon J. The effect of hypertonic sodium chloride on intracranial pressure in patients with acute liver failure. Hepatology 2004, 39:464-470.
62. Jalan R., Olde Damink S.W., Deutz N.E., et al. Moderate hypothermia prevents cerebral hyperemia and increase in intracranial pressure in patients undergoing liver transplantation for acute liver failure. Transplantation 2003, 75:2034-2039.
63. Jalan R., SW O.D., Deutz N.E., Lee A., Hayes P.C. Moderate hypothermia for uncontrolled intracranial hypertension in acute liver failure. Lancet 1999, 354:1164-1168.
64. Forbes A., Alexander G.J., O'Grady J.G., et al. Thiopental infusion in the treatment of intracranial hypertension complicating fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 1989, 10:306-310.
65. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000, 342:1301-1308.
66. Strauss G.I., Hogh P., Moller K., Knudsen G.M., Hansen B.A., Larsen F.S. Regional cerebral blood flow during mechanical hyperventilation in patients with fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 1999, 30:1368-1373.
67. Strauss G., Hansen B.A., Knudsen G.M., Larsen F.S. Hyperventilation restores cerebral blood flow autoregulation in patients with acute liver failure. J Hepatol 1998, 28:199-203.
68. Baudouin S.V., Howdle P., O'Grady J.G., Webster N.R. Acute lung injury in fulminant hepatic failure following paracetamol poisoning. Thorax 1995, 50:399-402.
69. Brienza N., Revelly J.P., Ayuse T., Robotham J.L. Effects of PEEP on liver arterial and venous blood flows. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995, 152:504-510.
70. McCormick P.A., Treanor D., McCormack G., Farrell M. Early death from paracetamol (acetaminophen) induced fulminant hepatic failure without cerebral oedema. J Hepatol 2003, 39:547-551.
71. Pinsky M.R., Matuschak G.M., Bernardi L., Klain M. Hemodynamic effects of cardiac cycle-specific increases in intrathoracic pressure. J Appl Physiol 1986, 60:604-612.
72. MacGilchrist A.J., Sumner D., Reid J.L. Impaired pressor reactivity in cirrhosis: evidence for a peripheral vascular defect. Hepatology 1991, 13:689-694.
73. Shawcross D.L., Davies N.A., Mookerjee R.P., et al. Worsening of cerebral hyperemia by the administration of terlipressin in acute liver failure with severe encephalopathy. Hepatology 2004, 39:471-475.
74. Clemmesen J.O., Galatius S., Skak C., Dalgaard P., Larsen F.S., Ott P. The effect of increasing blood pressure with dopamine on systemic, splanchnic, and lower extremity hemodynamics in patients with acute liver failure. Scand J Gastroenterol 1999, 34:921-927.
75. Annane D. Glucocorticoids in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. Curr Opin Crit Care 2005, 11:449-453.
76. Harry R., Auzinger G., Wendon J. The clinical importance of adrenal insufficiency in acute hepatic dysfunction. Hepatology 2002, 36:395-402.
77. Ringe B., Lubbe N., Kuse E., Frei U., Pichlmayr R. Management of emergencies before and after liver transplantation by early total hepatectomy. Transplant Proc 1993, 25:1090.
78. Guirl M.J., Weinstein J.S., Goldstein R.M., Levy M.F., Klintmalm G.B. Two-stage total hepatectomy and liver transplantation for acute deterioration of chronic liver disease: a new bridge to transplantation. Liver Transpl 2004, 10:564-570.
79. So S.K., Barteau J.A., Perdrizet G.A., Marsh J.W. Successful retransplantation after a 48-hour anhepatic state. Transplant Proc 1993, 25:1962-1963.
80. O'Grady J.G., Gimson A.E., O'Brien C.J., Pucknell A., Hughes R.D., Williams R. Controlled trials of charcoal hemoperfusion and prognostic factors in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology 1988, 94:1186-1192.
81. O'Grady J.G., Alexander G.J., Hayllar K.M., Williams R. Early indicators of prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology 1989, 97:439-445.
82. Wilkinson S.P., Blendis L.M., Williams R. Frequency and type of renal and electrolyte disorders in fulminant hepatic failure. Br Med J 1974, 1:186-189.
83. Leithead J.A., Ferguson J.W., Bates C.M., et al. The systemic inflammatory response syndrome is predictive of renal dysfunction in patients with non-paracetamol-induced acute liver failure. Gut 2009, 58:443-449.
84. Jain S., Pendyala P., Varma S., Sharma N., Joshi K., Chawla Y. Effect of renal dysfunction in fulminant hepatic failure. Trop Gastroenterol 2000, 21:118-120.
85. Davenport A. The management of renal failure in patients at risk of cerebral edema/hypoxia. New Horiz 1995, 3:717-724.
86. Davenport A. Dialysate and substitution fluids for patients treated by continuous forms of renal replacement therapy. Contrib Nephrol 2001, 132:313-322.
87. Schiodt F.V., Balko J., Schilsky M., Harrison M.E., Thornton A., Lee W.M. Thrombopoietin in acute liver failure. Hepatology 2003, 37:558-561.
88. Pereira L.M., Langley P.G., Hayllar K.M., Tredger J.M., Williams R. Coagulation factor V and VIII/V ratio as predictors of outcome in paracetamol induced fulminant hepatic failure: relation to other prognostic indicators. Gut 1992, 33:98-102.
89. Valla D., Flejou J.F., Lebrec D., et al. Portal hypertension and ascites in acute hepatitis: clinical, hemodynamic and histological correlations. Hepatology 1989, 10:482-487.
90. Drews R.E., Weinberger S.E. Thrombocytopenic disorders in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000, 162:347-351.
91. Lisman T., Leebeek F.W. Hemostatic alterations in liver disease: a review on pathophysiology, clinical consequences, and treatment. Dig Surg 2007, 24:250-258.
92. Munoz S.J., Ballas S.K., Moritz M.J., et al. Perioperative management of fulminant and subfulminant hepatic failure with therapeutic plasmapheresis. Transplant Proc 1989, 21:3535-3536.
93. Munoz S.J., Stravitz R.T., Gabriel D.A. Coagulopathy of acute liver failure. Clin Liver Dis 2009, 13:95-107.
94. Farmer D.G., Anselmo D.M., Ghobrial R.M., et al. Liver transplantation for fulminant hepatic failure: experience with more than 200 patients over a 17-year period. Ann Surg 2003, 237:666-675.
95. Rolando N., Harvey F., Brahm J., et al. Prospective study of bacterial infection in acute liver failure: an analysis of fifty patients. Hepatology 1990, 11:49-53.
96. Rolando N., Wade J.J., Stangou A., et al. Prospective study comparing the efficacy of prophylactic parenteral antimicrobials, with or without enteral decontamination, in patients with acute liver failure. Liver Transpl Surg 1996, 2:8-13.
97. Rolando N., Wade J.J., Fagan E., Philpott-Howard J., Casewell M.W., Williams R. An open, comparative trial of aztreonam with vancomycin and gentamicin with piperacillin in patients with fulminant hepatic failure. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992, 30:215-220.
98. Rolando N., Gimson A., Wade J., Philpott-Howard J., Casewell M., Williams R. Prospective controlled trial of selective parenteral and enteral antimicrobial regimen in fulminant liver failure. Hepatology 1993, 17:196-201.
99. Gramlich L., Kichian K., Pinilla J., Rodych N.J., Dhaliwal R., Heyland D.K. Does enteral nutrition compared to parenteral nutrition result in better outcomes in critically ill adult patients? A systematic review of the literature. Nutrition 2004, 20:843-848.
100. Naylor C.D., O'Rourke K., Detsky A.S., Baker J.P. Parenteral nutrition with branched-chain amino acids in hepatic encephalopathy. A meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 1989, 97:1033-1042.
101. Rose C., Michalak A., Rao K.V., Quack G., Kircheis G., Butterworth R.F. l-Ornithine-l-aspartate lowers plasma and cerebrospinal fluid ammonia and prevents brain edema in rats with acute liver failure. Hepatology 1999, 30:636-640.
102. Raff T., Germann G., Hartmann B. The value of early enteral nutrition in the prophylaxis of stress ulceration in the severely burned patient. Burns 1997, 23:313-318.
103. Ruiz-Santana S., Ortiz E., Gonzalez B., Bolanos J., Ruiz-Santana A.J., Manzano J.L. Stress-induced gastroduodenal lesions and total parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: frequency, complications, and the value of prophylactic treatment. A prospective, randomized study. Crit Care Med 1991, 19:887-891.
104. Shakil A.O., Kramer D., Mazariegos G.V., Fung J.J., Rakela J. Acute liver failure: clinical features, outcome analysis, and applicability of prognostic criteria. Liver Transpl 2000, 6:163-169.
105. Mitchell I., Bihari D., Chang R., Wendon J., Williams R. Earlier identification of patients at risk from acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure. Crit Care Med 1998, 26:279-284.
106. Bailey B., Amre D.K., Gaudreault P. Fulminant hepatic failure secondary to acetaminophen poisoning: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prognostic criteria determining the need for liver transplantation. Crit Care Med 2003, 31:299-305.
107. Caraceni P., Van Thiel D.H. Acute liver failure. Lancet 1995, 345:163-169.
108. Kjaergard L.L., Liu J., Als-Nielsen B., Gluud C. Artificial and bioartificial support systems for acute and acute-on-chronic liver failure: a systematic review. JAMA 2003, 289:217-222.
109. Liu J.P., Gluud L.L., Als-Nielsen B., Gluud C. Artificial and bioartificial support systems for liver failure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004, CD003628.
110. Khuroo M.S., Farahat K.L. Molecular adsorbent recirculating system for acute and acute-on-chronic liver failure: a meta-analysis. Liver Transpl 2004, 10:1099-1106.
111. Sadahiro T., Hirasawa H., Oda S., et al. Usefulness of plasma exchange plus continuous hemodiafiltration to reduce adverse effects associated with plasma exchange in patients with acute liver failure. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:1386-1392.
112. Clemmesen J.O., Kondrup J., Nielsen L.B., Larsen F.S., Ott P. Effects of high-volume plasmapheresis on ammonia, urea, and amino acids in patients with acute liver failure. Am J Gastroenterol 2001, 96:1217-1223.
113. Ringe B., Lubbe N., Kuse E., Frei U., Pichlmayr R. Total hepatectomy and liver transplantation as two-stage procedure. Ann Surg 1993, 218:3-9.
114. Jalan R., Pollok A., Shah S.H., Madhavan K., Simpson K.J. Liver derived pro-inflammatory cytokines may be important in producing intracranial hypertension in acute liver failure. J Hepatol 2002, 37:536-538.
115. Chenard-Neu M.P., Boudjema K., Bernuau J., et al. Auxiliary liver transplantation: regeneration of the native liver and outcome in 30 patients with fulminant hepatic failure-a multicenter European study. Hepatology 1996, 23:1119-1127.
116. Girlanda R., Vilca-Melendez H., Srinivasan P., et al. Immunosuppression withdrawal after auxiliary liver transplantation for acute liver failure. Transplant Proc 2005, 37:1720-1721.
117. van Hoek B., de Boer J., Boudjema K., Williams R., Corsmit O., Terpstra O.T. Auxiliary versus orthotopic liver transplantation for acute liver failure. EURALT Study Group. European Auxiliary Liver Transplant Registry. J Hepatol 1999, 30:699-705.
118. Sharma P., Rakela J. Management of pre-liver transplantation patient-part 2. Liver Transpl 2005, 11:249-260.
119. Garcia-Tsao G. Portal hypertension. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2006, 22:254-262.
120. Ong J.P., Mullen K.D. Hepatic encephalopathy. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2001, 13:325-334.
121. Hazell A.S., Butterworth R.F. Hepatic encephalopathy: an update of pathophysiologic mechanisms. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1999, 222:99-112.
122. Ferenci P., Lockwood A., Mullen K., Tarter R., Weissenborn K., Blei A.T. Hepatic encephalopathy-definition, nomenclature, diagnosis, and quantification: final report of the working party at the 11th World Congresses of Gastroenterology, Vienna, 1998. Hepatology 2002, 35:716-721.
123. Han M.K., Hyzy R. Advances in critical care management of hepatic failure and insufficiency. Crit Care Med 2006, 34:S225-231.
124. Lawrence K.R., Klee J.A. Rifaximin for the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy. Pharmacotherapy 2008, 28:1019-1032.
125. Wong F., Girgrah N., Graba J., Allidina Y., Liu P., Blendis L. The cardiac response to exercise in cirrhosis. Gut 2001, 49:268-275.
126. Canabal J.M., Kramer D.J. Management of sepsis in patients with liver failure. Curr Opin Crit Care 2008, 14:189-197.
127. TenHoor T., Mannino D.M., Moss M. Risk factors for ARDS in the United States: analysis of the 1993 National Mortality Followback Study. Chest 2001, 119:1179-1184.
128. Plotz F., Slutsky A.S., Van Vught A.J., Heijnen C.J. Ventilator induced lung injury and multiple system organ failure. Intensive Care Medicine 2004, 30:1865-1872.
129. Martinez G.P., Barbera J.A., Visa J., et al. Hepatopulmonary syndrome in candidates for liver transplantation. J Hepatol 2001, 34:651-657.
130. Schmidt G.A. Management of the patient with cirrhosis. Principles of critical care 2005, 1289-1298. McGraw-Hill, New York. 3rd ed. J.B. Hall, G.A. Schmidt, L.D.H. Wood (Eds.).
131. Ramsay M.A. Portopulmonary hypertension and hepatopulmonary syndrome, and liver transplantation. Int Anesthesiol Clin 2006, 44:69-82.
132. Budhiraja R., Hassoun P.M. Portopulmonary hypertension: a tale of two circulations. Chest 2003, 123:562-576.
133. Krowka M.J., Plevak D.J., Findlay J.Y., Rosen C.B., Wiesner R.H., Krom R.A. Pulmonary hemodynamics and perioperative cardiopulmonary-related mortality in patients with portopulmonary hypertension undergoing liver transplantation. Liver Transpl 2000, 6:443-450.
134. Kuo P.C., Johnson L.B., Plotkin J.S., Howell C.D., Bartlett S.T., Rubin L.J. Continuous intravenous infusion of epoprostenol for the treatment of portopulmonary hypertension. Transplantation 1997, 63:604-606.
135. Krowka M.J., Frantz R.P., McGoon M.D., Severson C., Plevak D.J., Wiesner R.H. Improvement in pulmonary hemodynamics during intravenous epoprostenol (prostacyclin): a study of 15 patients with moderate to severe portopulmonary hypertension. Hepatology 1999, 30:641-648.
136. Chua R., Keogh A., Miyashita M. Novel use of sildenafil in the treatment of portopulmonary hypertension. J Heart Lung Transplant 2005, 24:498-500.
137. Garcia N., Mihas A.A. Hepatic hydrothorax: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. J Clin Gastroenterol 2004, 38:52-58.
138. Kinasewitz G.T., Keddissi J.I. Hepatic hydrothorax. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2003, 9:261-265.
139. Salerno F., Gerbes A., Gines P., Wong F., Arroyo V. Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. Gut 2007, 56:1310-1318.
140. Arroyo V., Gines P., Gerbes A.L., et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria of refractory ascites and hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. International Ascites Club. Hepatology 1996, 23:164-176.
141. Runyon B.A. Management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis: an update. Hepatology 2009, 49:2087-2107.
142. Sanyal A.J., Boyer T., Garcia-Tsao G., et al. A randomized, prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of terlipressin for type 1 hepatorenal syndrome. Gastroenterology 2008, 134:1360-1368.
143. Martin-Llahi M., Pepin M.N., Guevara M., et al. Terlipressin and albumin vs albumin in patients with cirrhosis and hepatorenal syndrome: a randomized study. Gastroenterology 2008, 134:1352-1359.
144. Chava S.P., Singh B., Zaman M.B., Rela M., Heaton N.D. Current indications for combined liver and kidney transplantation in adults. Transplant Rev (Orlando) 2009, 23:111-119.
145. Moore K.P., Aithal G.P. Guidelines on the management of ascites in cirrhosis. Gut 2006, 55(Suppl 6):vi1-12.
146. Gustot T., Durand F., Lebrec D., Vincent J.L., Moreau R. Severe sepsis in cirrhosis. Hepatology 2009, 50:2022-2033.
147. Sigal S.H., Stanca C.M., Fernandez J., Arroyo V., Navasa M. Restricted use of albumin for spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Gut 2007, 56:597-599.
148. Rivers E., Nguyen B., Havstad S., et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:1368-1377.
149. Fernandez J., Escorsell A., Zabalza M., et al. Adrenal insufficiency in patients with cirrhosis and septic shock: effect of treatment with hydrocortisone on survival. Hepatology 2006, 44:1288-1295.
150. Garcia-Tsao G., Groszmann R.J., Fisher R.L., Conn H.O., Atterbury C.E., Glickman M. Portal pressure, presence of gastroesophageal varices and variceal bleeding. Hepatology 1985, 5:419-424.
151. Garcia-Tsao G., Sanyal A.J., Grace N.D., Carey W. Prevention and management of gastroesophageal varices and variceal hemorrhage in cirrhosis. Hepatology 2007, 46:922-938.
152. Abraldes J.G., Villanueva C., Banares R., et al. Hepatic venous pressure gradient and prognosis in patients with acute variceal bleeding treated with pharmacologic and endoscopic therapy. J Hepatol 2008, 48:229-236.
153. de Franchis R. Evolving consensus in portal hypertension. Report of the Baveno IV consensus workshop on methodology of diagnosis and therapy in portal hypertension. J Hepatol 2005, 43:167-176.
154. Castaneda B., Morales J., Lionetti R., et al. Effects of blood volume restitution following a portal hypertensive-related bleeding in anesthetized cirrhotic rats. Hepatology 2001, 33:821-825.
155. Bernard B., Grange J.D., Khac E.N., Amiot X., Opolon P., Poynard T. Antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of bacterial infections in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal bleeding: a meta-analysis. Hepatology 1999, 29:1655-1661.
156. Soares-Weiser K., Brezis M., Tur-Kaspa R., Leibovici L. Antibiotic prophylaxis for cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal bleeding. Cochrane Database Syst 2002, CD002907. Rev.
157. Nietsch H.H. Management of portal hypertension. J Clin Gastroenterol 2005, 39:232-236.