Heart Failure Treatment in the Intensive Care Unit in Children

Heart Failure Clinics

Volumn 6, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 531-558

  Jefferies, John Lynn ^a   Hoffman, Timothy M ^b   Nelson, David P ^a  

^a CINCINNATI CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b NATIONWIDE CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Children; Heart failure; Intensive care unit

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; DOBUTAMINE; DOPAMINE; FAS ANTIGEN; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; INTERLEUKIN 6; MILRINONE; NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE TYPE C; NESIRITIDE; NEUROHORMONE; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; PHOSPHODIESTERASE INHIBITOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ANEMIA; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CARDIORENAL SYNDROME; CHILD; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE; CYANIDE POISONING; HEART AFTERLOAD; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART ASSIST DEVICE; HEART FAILURE; HEART MUSCLE CONTRACTILITY; HEART OUTPUT; HEART PRELOAD; HEART RIGHT VENTRICLE FAILURE; HEART SINGLE VENTRICLE; HUMAN; INFANT; INFLAMMATION; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LIVER DYSFUNCTION; LONG TERM CARE; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PEDIATRIC CARDIOLOGY; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; SYNDROME;

ALGORITHMS; ANEMIA; ARRHYTHMIAS, CARDIAC; CARDIAC OUTPUT, LOW; CARDIOTONIC AGENTS; CATECHOLAMINES; CHILD; DIURETICS; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; HEART DEFECTS, CONGENITAL; HEART FAILURE; HEART-ASSIST DEVICES; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; INTENSIVE CARE; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; LIVER DISEASES; MYOCARDIAL CONTRACTION; MYOCARDIUM; NATRIURETIC PEPTIDES; NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; POSTOPERATIVE CARE; RENAL INSUFFICIENCY; RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL; VASODILATOR AGENTS;

EID: 77956914829     PISSN: 15517136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.hfc.2010.06.001     Document Type: Review

References (195)

1. Katz A.M. Overview, definition, historical aspects 2003, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia.
2. Mann D.L. Heart failure as a progressive disorder 2004, vol. 1. Saunders, Philadelphia. 1st edition.
3. Pignatelli R.H., McMahon C.J., Dreyer W.J., et al. Clinical characterization of left ventricular noncompaction in children: a relatively common form of cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2003, 108:2672.
4. Hunt S.A. ACC/AHA 2005 Guideline Update for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). J Am Coll Cardiol 2005, 46:e1.
5. Hunt S.A., Abraham W.T., Chin M.H., et al. ACC/AHA 2005 Guideline Update for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure): developed in collaboration with the American College of Chest Physicians and the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: endorsed by the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation 2005, 112:e154.
6. Rosenthal D., Chrisant M.R., Edens E., et al. International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: practice guidelines for management of heart failure in children. J Heart Lung Transplant 2004, 23:1313.
7. Wernovsky G., Wypij D., Jonas R.A., et al. Postoperative course and hemodynamic profile after the arterial switch operation in neonates and infants. A comparison of low-flow cardiopulmonary bypass and circulatory arrest. Circulation 1995, 92:2226.
8. Hoffman T.M., Wernovsky G., Atz A.M., et al. Efficacy and safety of milrinone in preventing low cardiac output syndrome in infants and children after corrective surgery for congenital heart disease. Circulation 2003, 107:996.
9. Hall R.I., Smith M.S., Rocker G. The systemic inflammatory response to cardiopulmonary bypass: pathophysiological, therapeutic, and pharmacological considerations. Anesth Analg 1997, 85:766.
10. Schermerhorn M.L., Tofukuji M., Khoury P.R., et al. Sialyl lewis oligosaccharide preserves cardiopulmonary and endothelial function after hypothermic circulatory arrest in lambs. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000, 120:230.
11. Chaturvedi R.R., Lincoln C., Gothard J.W., et al. Left ventricular dysfunction after open repair of simple congenital heart defects in infants and children: quantitation with the use of a conductance catheter immediately after bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1998, 115:77.
12. Piacentino V., Weber C.R., Chen X., et al. Cellular basis of abnormal calcium transients of failing human ventricular myocytes. Circ Res 2003, 92:651.
13. Fill M., Copello J.A. Ryanodine receptor calcium release channels. Physiol Rev 2002, 82:893.
14. Miyamoto M.I., del Monte F., Schmidt U., et al. Adenoviral gene transfer of SERCA2a improves left-ventricular function in aortic-banded rats in transition to heart failure. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000, 97:793.
15. Hersel J., Jung S., Mohacsi P., et al. Expression of the L-type calcium channel in human heart failure. Basic Res Cardiol 2002, 97(Suppl 1):I4.
16. Ahmmed G.U., Dong P.H., Song G., et al. Changes in Ca(2+) cycling proteins underlie cardiac action potential prolongation in a pressure-overloaded guinea pig model with cardiac hypertrophy and failure. Circ Res 2000, 86:558.
17. Towbin J.A., Bowles N.E. The failing heart. Nature 2002, 415:227.
18. Hoffman E.P., Brown R.H., Kunkel L.M. Dystrophin: the protein product of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy locus. Cell 1987, 51:919.
19. Towbin J.A., Bowles K.R., Bowles N.E. Etiologies of cardiomyopathy and heart failure. Nat Med 1999, 5:266.
20. Gao W.D., Atar D., Liu Y., et al. Role of troponin I proteolysis in the pathogenesis of stunned myocardium. Circ Res 1997, 80:393.
21. Schwartz S.M., Duffy J.Y., Pearl J.M., et al. Glucocorticoids preserve calpastatin and troponin I during cardiopulmonary bypass in immature pigs. Pediatr Res 2003, 54:91.
22. Chang A.N., Potter J.D. Sarcomeric protein mutations in dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart Fail Rev 2005, 10:225.
23. Vatta M., Stetson S.J., Jimenez S., et al. Molecular normalization of dystrophin in the failing left and right ventricle of patients treated with either pulsatile or continuous flow-type ventricular assist devices. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004, 43:811.
24. Hefti M.A., Harder B.A., Eppenberger H.M., et al. Signaling pathways in cardiac myocyte hypertrophy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1997, 29:2873.
25. Molkentin J.D., Lu J.R., Antos C.L., et al. A calcineurin-dependent transcriptional pathway for cardiac hypertrophy. Cell 1998, 93:215.
26. Ito H., Hirata Y., Hiroe M., et al. Endothelin-1 induces hypertrophy with enhanced expression of muscle-specific genes in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Circ Res 1991, 69:209.
27. Miyada S., Haneda T., Osaki J. Renin-angiotensin system in stretch-induced hypertrophy of cultured neonatal rat heart cells. Eur J Pharmacol 1996, 307:81.
28. Brunner-La Rocca H.P., Vaddadi G., Esler M.D. Recent insight into therapy of congestive heart failure: focus on ACE inhibition and angiotensin-II antagonism. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999, 33:1163.
29. Hillege H.L., Girbes A.R., de Kam P.J., et al. Renal function, neurohormonal activation, and survival in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 2000, 102:203.
30. Colucci W.S., Sawyer D.B., Singh K., et al. Adrenergic overload and apoptosis in heart failure: implications for therapy. J Card Fail 2000, 6:1.
31. Singh K., Communal C., Sawyer D.B., et al. Adrenergic regulation of myocardial apoptosis. Cardiovasc Res 2000, 45:713.
32. Anand I.S., Fisher L.D., Chiang Y.T., et al. Changes in brain natriuretic peptide and norepinephrine over time and mortality and morbidity in the Valsartan Heart Failure Trial (Val-HeFT). Circulation 2003, 107:1278.
33. Maron B.J., Tholakanahalli V.N., Zenovich A.G., et al. Usefulness of B-type natriuretic peptide assay in the assessment of symptomatic state in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2004, 109:984.
34. Abassi Z., Karram T., Ellaham S., et al. Implications of the natriuretic peptide system in the pathogenesis of heart failure: diagnostic and therapeutic importance. Pharmacol Ther 2004, 102:223.
35. McCullough P.A., Sandberg K.R. Sorting out the evidence on natriuretic peptides. Rev Cardiovasc Med 2003, 4(Suppl 4):S13.
36. de Lemos J.A., McGuire D.K., Drazner M.H. B-type natriuretic peptide in cardiovascular disease. Lancet 2003, 362:316.
37. Abraham W.T., Adams K.F., Fonarow G.C., et al. In-hospital mortality in patients with acute decompensated heart failure requiring intravenous vasoactive medications: an analysis from the Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National Registry (ADHERE). J Am Coll Cardiol 2005, 46:57.
38. Jefferies J.L., Price J.F., Denfield S.W., et al. Safety and efficacy of nesiritide in pediatric heart failure. J Card Fail 2007, 13:541.
39. Elster S.K., Braunwald E., Wood H.F. A study of C-reactive protein in the serum of patients with congestive heart failure. Am Heart J 1956, 51:533.
40. Castell J.V., Gomez-Lechon M.J., David M., et al. Acute-phase response of human hepatocytes: regulation of acute-phase protein synthesis by interleukin-6. Hepatology 1990, 12:1179.
41. Ridker P.M. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein: potential adjunct for global risk assessment in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2001, 103:1813.
42. Alonso-Martinez J.L., Llorente-Diez B., Echegaray-Agara M., et al. C-reactive protein as a predictor of improvement and readmission in heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2002, 4:331.
43. Anand I.S., Latini R., Florea V.G., et al. C-reactive protein in heart failure: prognostic value and the effect of valsartan. Circulation 2005, 112:1428.
44. Venugopal S.K., Devaraj S., Jialal I. Effect of C-reactive protein on vascular cells: evidence for a proinflammatory, proatherogenic role. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2005, 14:33.
45. Skrak P., Kovacikova L., Kunovsky P. Procalcitonin, neopterin and C-reactive protein after pediatric cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. Bratisl Lek Listy 2007, 108:501.
46. Anker S.D., von Haehling S. Inflammatory mediators in chronic heart failure: an overview. Heart 2004, 90:464.
47. Seta Y., Shan K., Bozkurt B., et al. Basic mechanisms in heart failure: the cytokine hypothesis. J Card Fail 1996, 2:243.
48. Deswal A., Petersen N.J., Feldman A.M., et al. Cytokines and cytokine receptors in advanced heart failure: an analysis of the cytokine database from the Vesnarinone trial (VEST). Circulation 2001, 103:2055.
49. Mann D.L. Targeted anticytokine therapy and the failing heart. Am J Cardiol 2005, 95:9C.
50. Mann D.L., McMurray J.J., Packer M., et al. Targeted anticytokine therapy in patients with chronic heart failure: results of the Randomized Etanercept Worldwide Evaluation (RENEWAL). Circulation 2004, 109:1594.
51. Ratnasamy C., Kinnamon D.D., Lipshultz S.E., et al. Associations between neurohormonal and inflammatory activation and heart failure in children. Am Heart J 2008, 155:527.
52. Gullestad L., Aukrust P. Review of trials in chronic heart failure showing broad-spectrum anti-inflammatory approaches. Am J Cardiol 2005, 95:17C.
53. Sliwa K., Woodiwiss A., Kone V.N., et al. Therapy of ischemic cardiomyopathy with the immunomodulating agent pentoxifylline: results of a randomized study. Circulation 2004, 109:750.
54. de Belder A.J., Radomski M.W., Why H.J., et al. Myocardial calcium-independent nitric oxide synthase activity is present in dilated cardiomyopathy, myocarditis, and postpartum cardiomyopathy but not in ischaemic or valvar heart disease. Br Heart J 1995, 74:426.
55. Satoh M., Nakamura M., Tamura G., et al. Inducible nitric oxide synthase and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in myocardium in human dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997, 29:716.
56. Patel R., Nagueh S.F., Tsybouleva N., et al. Simvastatin induces regression of cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis and improves cardiac function in a transgenic rabbit model of human hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2001, 104:317.
57. Tavazzi L., Maggioni A.P., Marchioli R., et al. Effect of rosuvastatin in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2008, 372:1231.
58. Ronco C., Haapio M., House A.A., et al. Cardiorenal syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008, 52:1527.
59. Liang K.V., Williams A.W., Greene E.L., et al. Acute decompensated heart failure and the cardiorenal syndrome. Crit Care Med 2008, 36:S75.
60. Mebazaa A., Gheorghiade M., Pina I.L., et al. Practical recommendations for prehospital and early in-hospital management of patients presenting with acute heart failure syndromes. Crit Care Med 2008, 36:S129.
61. Mullens W., Abrahams Z., Francis G.S., et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009, 53:589.
62. Goldstein S.L. Overview of pediatric renal replacement therapy in acute kidney injury. Semin Dial 2009, 22:180.
63. Foley R.N., Parfrey P.S., Sarnak M.J. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998, 32:S112.
64. Hillege H.L., Nitsch D., Pfeffer M.A., et al. Renal function as a predictor of outcome in a broad spectrum of patients with heart failure. Circulation 2006, 113:671.
65. Shlipak M.G., Smith G.L., Rathore S.S., et al. Renal function, digoxin therapy, and heart failure outcomes: evidence from the digoxin intervention group trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004, 15:2195.
66. Dent C.L., Ma Q., Dastrala S., et al. Plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin predicts acute kidney injury, morbidity and mortality after pediatric cardiac surgery: a prospective uncontrolled cohort study. Crit Care 2007, 11:R127.
67. Price J.F., Mott A.R., Dickerson H.A., et al. Worsening renal function in children hospitalized with decompensated heart failure: evidence for a pediatric cardiorenal syndrome?. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2008, 9:279.
68. Devarajan P. The future of pediatric acute kidney injury management-biomarkers. Semin Nephrol 2008, 28:493.
69. Nickolas T.L., Barasch J., Devarajan P. Biomarkers in acute and chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2008, 17:127.
70. Allen L.A., Felker G.M., Pocock S., et al. Liver function abnormalities and outcome in patients with chronic heart failure: data from the Candesartan in Heart Failure: Assessment of Reduction in Mortality and Morbidity (CHARM) program. Eur J Heart Fail 2009, 11:170.
71. Kubo S.H., Walter B.A., John D.H., et al. Liver function abnormalities in chronic heart failure. Influence of systemic hemodynamics. Arch Intern Med 1987, 147:1227.
72. Lau G.T., Tan H.C., Kritharides L. Type of liver dysfunction in heart failure and its relation to the severity of tricuspid regurgitation. Am J Cardiol 2002, 90:1405.
73. van Deursen V.M., Damman K., Hillege H.L., et al. Abnormal liver function in relation to hemodynamic profile in heart failure patients. J Card Fail 2010, 16:84.
74. Ceppa E.P., Fuh K.C., Bulkley G.B. Mesenteric hemodynamic response to circulatory shock. Curr Opin Crit Care 2003, 9:127.
75. Reilly P.M., Toung T.J., Miyachi M., et al. Hemodynamics of pancreatic ischemia in cardiogenic shock in pigs. Gastroenterology 1997, 113:938.
76. Gunther S., Gimbrone M.A., Alexander R.W. Identification and characterization of the high affinity vascular angiotensin II receptor in rat mesenteric artery. Circ Res 1980, 47:278.
77. Myers R.P., Cerini R., Sayegh R., et al. Cardiac hepatopathy: clinical, hemodynamic, and histologic characteristics and correlations. Hepatology 2003, 37:393.
78. Baik S.K., Fouad T.R., Lee S.S. Cirrhotic cardiomyopathy. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2007, 2:15.
79. Tang Y.D., Katz S.D. Anemia in chronic heart failure: prevalence, etiology, clinical correlates, and treatment options. Circulation 2006, 113:2454.
80. Felker G.M., Shaw L.K., Stough W.G., et al. Anemia in patients with heart failure and preserved systolic function. Am Heart J 2006, 151:457.
81. He S.W., Wang L.X. The impact of anemia on the prognosis of chronic heart failure: a meta-analysis and systemic review. Congest Heart Fail 2009, 15:123.
82. Drakos S.G., Anastasiou-Nana M.I., Malliaras K.G., et al. Anemia in chronic heart failure. Congest Heart Fail 2009, 15:87.
83. Witte K.K., Desilva R., Chattopadhyay S., et al. Are hematinic deficiencies the cause of anemia in chronic heart failure?. Am Heart J 2004, 147:924.
84. Nanas J.N., Matsouka C., Karageorgopoulos D., et al. Etiology of anemia in patients with advanced heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006, 48:2485.
85. McCullough P.A., Lepor N.E. Anemia: a modifiable risk factor for heart disease. Introduction. Rev Cardiovasc Med 2005, 6(Suppl 3):S1.
86. Weiss G., Goodnough L.T. Anemia of chronic disease. N Engl J Med 2005, 352:1011.
87. Schall R.R., Petrucci R.J., Brozena S.C., et al. Cognitive function in patients with symptomatic dilated cardiomyopathy before and after cardiac transplantation. J Am Coll Cardiol 1989, 14:1666.
88. Petrucci R.J., Wright S., Naka Y., et al. Neurocognitive assessments in advanced heart failure patients receiving continuous-flow left ventricular assist devices. J Heart Lung Transplant 2009, 28:542.
89. Caplan L.R. Cardiac encephalopathy and congestive heart failure: a hypothesis about the relationship. Neurology 2006, 66:99.
90. Thom T., Haase N., Rosamond W., et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2006 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 2006, 113:e85.
91. Gelb B.D., Garson A. Noninvasive discrimination of right atrial ectopic tachycardia from sinus tachycardia in " dilated cardiomyopathy" Am Heart J 1990, 120:886.
92. Doval H.C., Nul D.R., Grancelli H.O., et al. Randomised trial of low-dose amiodarone in severe congestive heart failure. Grupo de Estudio de la Sobrevida en la Insuficiencia Cardiaca en Argentina (GESICA). Lancet 1994, 344:493.
93. Dao Q., Krishnaswamy P., Kazanegra R., et al. Utility of B-type natriuretic peptide in the diagnosis of congestive heart failure in an urgent-care setting. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001, 37:379.
94. Maisel A.S., Krishnaswamy P., Nowak R.M., et al. Rapid measurement of B-type natriuretic peptide in the emergency diagnosis of heart failure. N Engl J Med 2002, 347:161.
95. McCullough P.A., Nowak R.M., McCord J., et al. B-type natriuretic peptide and clinical judgment in emergency diagnosis of heart failure: analysis from Breathing Not Properly (BNP) Multinational Study. Circulation 2002, 106:416.
96. Mir T.S., Marohn S., Laer S., et al. Plasma concentrations of N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide in control children from the neonatal to adolescent period and in children with congestive heart failure. Pediatrics 2002, 110:e76.
97. Westerlind A., Wahlander H., Lindstedt G., et al. Clinical signs of heart failure are associated with increased levels of natriuretic peptide types B and A in children with congenital heart defects or cardiomyopathy. Acta Paediatr 2004, 93:340.
98. Grady K.L., Dracup K., Kennedy G., et al. Team management of patients with heart failure: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Cardiovascular Nursing Council of the American Heart Association. Circulation 2000, 102:2443.
99. Wilson J.R., Reichek N., Dunkman W.B., et al. Effect of diuresis on the performance of the failing left ventricle in man. Am J Med 1981, 70:234.
100. Stevenson L.W., Brunken R.C., Belil D., et al. Afterload reduction with vasodilators and diuretics decreases mitral regurgitation during upright exercise in advanced heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 1990, 15:174.
101. Butler J., Young J.B., Abraham W.T., et al. Beta-blocker use and outcomes among hospitalized heart failure patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006, 47:2462.
102. Nohria A., Tsang S.W., Fang J.C., et al. Clinical assessment identifies hemodynamic profiles that predict outcomes in patients admitted with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003, 41:1797.
103. Sackner-Bernstein J.D. Management of diuretic-refractory, volume-overloaded patients with acutely decompensated heart failure. Curr Cardiol Rep 2005, 7:204.
104. Guiha N.H., Cohn J.N., Mikulic E., et al. Treatment of refractory heart failure with infusion of nitroprusside. N Engl J Med 1974, 291:587.
105. Sackner-Bernstein J.D., Kowalski M., Fox M., et al. Short-term risk of death after treatment with nesiritide for decompensated heart failure: a pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 2005, 293:1900.
106. Sackner-Bernstein J.D., Skopicki H.A., Aaronson K.D. Risk of worsening renal function with nesiritide in patients with acutely decompensated heart failure. Circulation 2005, 111:1487.
107. Bailey J.M., Miller B.E., Lu W., et al. The pharmacokinetics of milrinone in pediatric patients after cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 1999, 90:1012.
108. Chang A.C., Atz A.M., Wernovsky G., et al. Milrinone: systemic and pulmonary hemodynamic effects in neonates after cardiac surgery. Crit Care Med 1995, 23:1907.
109. Anderson J.L. Hemodynamic and clinical benefits with intravenous milrinone in severe chronic heart failure: results of a multicenter study in the United States. Am Heart J 1991, 121:1956.
110. Cuffe M.S., Califf R.M., Adams K.F., et al. Short-term intravenous milrinone for acute exacerbation of chronic heart failure: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002, 287:1541.
111. Felker G.M., Benza R.L., Chandler A.B., et al. Heart failure etiology and response to milrinone in decompensated heart failure: results from the OPTIME-CHF study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003, 41:997.
112. Seino Y., Momomura S., Takano T., et al. Multicenter, double-blind study of intravenous milrinone for patients with acute heart failure in Japan. Japan Intravenous Milrinone Investigators. Crit Care Med 1996, 24:1490.
113. Packer M., Carver J.R., Rodeheffer R.J., et al. Effect of oral milrinone on mortality in severe chronic heart failure. The PROMISE Study Research Group. N Engl J Med 1991, 325:1468.
114. Adamopoulos S., Piepoli M., Qiang F., et al. Effects of pulsed beta-stimulant therapy on beta-adrenoceptors and chronotropic responsiveness in chronic heart failure. Lancet 1995, 345:344.
115. Biddle T.L., Benotti J.R., Creager M.A., et al. Comparison of intravenous milrinone and dobutamine for congestive heart failure secondary to either ischemic or dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1987, 59:1345.
116. Schulz R., Rose J., Martin C., et al. Development of short-term myocardial hibernation. Its limitation by the severity of ischemia and inotropic stimulation. Circulation 1993, 88:684.
117. Hampton J.R., van Veldhuisen D.J., Kleber F.X., et al. Randomised study of effect of ibopamine on survival in patients with advanced severe heart failure. Second Prospective Randomised Study of Ibopamine on Mortality and Efficacy (PRIME II) Investigators. Lancet 1997, 349:971.
118. Kay J.H., Blalock A. The use of calcium chloride in the treatment of cardiac arrest in patients. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1951, 93:97.
119. Schwartz S.M., Duffy J.Y., Pearl J.M., et al. Cellular and molecular aspects of myocardial dysfunction. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:S214.
120. Lang R.M., Fellner S.K., Neumann A., et al. Left ventricular contractility varies directly with blood ionized calcium. Ann Intern Med 1988, 108:524.
121. Katz A.M. Potential deleterious effects of inotropic agents in the therapy of chronic heart failure. Circulation 1986, 73:III184.
122. Wenzel V., Krismer A.C., Arntz H.R., et al. A comparison of vasopressin and epinephrine for out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation. N Engl J Med 2004, 350:105.
123. Price J.F., Towbin J.A., Denfield S.W., et al. Arginine vasopressin levels are elevated and correlate with functional status in infants and children with congestive heart failure. Circulation 2004, 109:2550.
124. 2+] in the neonatal rat cardiomyocyte. Evidence for V1 subtype receptors. Circ Res 1991, 69:239.
125. Luckner G., Dunser M.W., Jochberger S., et al. Arginine vasopressin in 316 patients with advanced vasodilatory shock. Crit Care Med 2005, 33:2659.
126. Rosenzweig E.B., Starc T.J., Chen J.M., et al. Intravenous arginine-vasopressin in children with vasodilatory shock after cardiac surgery. Circulation 1999, 100:II182.
127. Gwathmey J.K., Copelas L., MacKinnon R., et al. Abnormal intracellular calcium handling in myocardium from patients with end-stage heart failure. Circ Res 1987, 61:70.
128. Felker G.M., O'Connor C.M. Inotropic therapy for heart failure: an evidence-based approach. Am Heart J 2001, 142:393.
129. Ukkonen H., Saraste M., Akkila J., et al. Myocardial efficiency during levosimendan infusion in congestive heart failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2000, 68:522.
130. Braun J.P., Schneider M., Dohmen P., et al. Successful treatment of dilative cardiomyopathy in a 12-year-old girl using the calcium sensitizer levosimendan after weaning from mechanical biventricular assist support. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2004, 18:772.
131. Braun J.P., Schneider M., Kastrup M., et al. Treatment of acute heart failure in an infant after cardiac surgery using levosimendan. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2004, 26:228.
132. Parr G.V., Blackstone E.H., Kirklin J.W. Cardiac performance and mortality early after intracardiac surgery in infants and young children. Circulation 1975, 51:867.
133. Bellinger D.C., Wypij D., Kuban K.C., et al. Developmental and neurological status of children at 4 years of age after heart surgery with hypothermic circulatory arrest or low-flow cardiopulmonary bypass. Circulation 1999, 100:526.
134. Li J., Schulze-Neick I., Lincoln C., et al. Oxygen consumption after cardiopulmonary bypass surgery in children: determinants and implications. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000, 119:525.
135. Moat N.E., Lamb R.K., Edwards J.C., et al. Induced hypothermia in the management of refractory low cardiac output states following cardiac surgery in infants and children. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1992, 6:579.
136. Dalrymple-Hay M.J., Deakin C.D., Knight H., et al. Induced hypothermia as salvage treatment for refractory cardiac failure following paediatric cardiac surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1999, 15:515.
137. Deakin C.D., Knight H., Edwards J.C., et al. Induced hypothermia in the postoperative management of refractory cardiac failure following paediatric cardiac surgery. Anaesthesia 1998, 53:848.
138. Hoffman T.M., Wernovsky G., Wieand T.S., et al. The incidence of arrhythmias in a pediatric cardiac intensive care unit. Pediatr Cardiol 2002, 23:598.
139. Hoffman T.M., Bush D.M., Wernovsky G., et al. Postoperative junctional ectopic tachycardia in children: incidence, risk factors, and treatment. Ann Thorac Surg 2002, 74:1607.
140. Raja P., Hawker R.E., Chaikitpinyo A., et al. Amiodarone management of junctional ectopic tachycardia after cardiac surgery in children. Br Heart J 1994, 72:261.
141. Walsh E.P., Saul J.P., Sholler G.F., et al. Evaluation of a staged treatment protocol for rapid automatic junctional tachycardia after operation for congenital heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997, 29:1046.
142. Ramamoorthy C., Anderson G.D., Williams G.D., et al. Pharmacokinetics and side effects of milrinone in infants and children after open heart surgery. Anesth Analg 1998, 86:283.
143. Lindsay C.A., Barton P., Lawless S., et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of milrinone lactate in pediatric patients with septic shock. J Pediatr 1998, 132:329.
144. Zuppa A.F., Nicolson S.C., Adamson P.C., et al. Population pharmacokinetics of milrinone in neonates with hypoplastic left heart syndrome undergoing stage I reconstruction. Anesth Analg 2006, 102:1062.
145. Bettendorf M., Schmidt K.G., Grulich-Henn J., et al. Tri-iodothyronine treatment in children after cardiac surgery: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled study. Lancet 2000, 356:529.
146. Portman M.A., Fearneyhough C., Ning X.H., et al. Triiodothyronine repletion in infants during cardiopulmonary bypass for congenital heart disease. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000, 120:604.
147. Carrel T., Eckstein F., Englberger L., et al. Thyronin treatment in adult and pediatric heart surgery: clinical experience and review of the literature. Eur J Heart Fail 2002, 4:577.
148. Argenziano M., Choudhri A.F., Oz M.C., et al. A prospective randomized trial of arginine vasopressin in the treatment of vasodilatory shock after left ventricular assist device placement. Circulation 1997, 96(Suppl 9):II286-II290.
149. Morales D.L., Gregg D., Helman D.N., et al. Arginine vasopressin in the treatment of 50 patients with postcardiotomy vasodilatory shock. Ann Thorac Surg 2000, 69:102.
150. O'Blenes S.B., Roy N., Konstantinov I., et al. Vasopressin reversal of phenoxybenzamine-induced hypotension after the Norwood procedure. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2002, 123:1012.
151. Shore S., Nelson D.P., Pearl J.M., et al. Usefulness of corticosteroid therapy in decreasing epinephrine requirements in critically ill infants with congenital heart disease. Am J Cardiol 2001, 88:591.
152. Liu J.P., Robinson P.J., Funder J.W., et al. The biosynthesis and secretion of adrenocorticotropin by the ovine anterior pituitary is predominantly regulated by arginine vasopressin (AVP). Evidence that protein kinase C mediates the action of AVP. J Biol Chem 1990, 265:14136.
153. Tweddell J.S., Hoffman G.M., Fedderly R.T., et al. Phenoxybenzamine improves systemic oxygen delivery after the Norwood procedure. Ann Thorac Surg 1999, 67:161.
154. Rossi A.F., Sommer R.J., Lotvin A., et al. Usefulness of intermittent monitoring of mixed venous oxygen saturation after stage I palliation for hypoplastic left heart syndrome. Am J Cardiol 1994, 73:1118.
155. Chaturvedi R.R., Shore D.F., Lincoln C., et al. Acute right ventricular restrictive physiology after repair of tetralogy of Fallot: association with myocardial injury and oxidative stress. Circulation 1999, 100:1540.
156. Shekerdemian L.S., Bush A., Shore D.F., et al. Cardiopulmonary interactions after Fontan operations: augmentation of cardiac output using negative pressure ventilation. Circulation 1997, 96:3934.
157. Shekerdemian L.S., Bush A., Shore D.F., et al. Cardiorespiratory responses to negative pressure ventilation after tetralogy of Fallot repair: a hemodynamic tool for patients with a low-output state. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999, 33:549.
158. Shekerdemian L.S., Shore D.F., Lincoln C., et al. Negative-pressure ventilation improves cardiac output after right heart surgery. Circulation 1996, 94:II49.
159. Bridges N.D., Mayer J.E., Lock J.E., et al. Effect of baffle fenestration on outcome of the modified Fontan operation. Circulation 1992, 86:1762.
160. Cheifetz I.M., Craig D.M., Quick G., et al. Increasing tidal volumes and pulmonary overdistention adversely affect pulmonary vascular mechanics and cardiac output in a pediatric swine model. Crit Care Med 1998, 26:710.
161. Meliones J., Kocis K., Bengur A.R., et al. Diastolic function in neonates after the arterial switch operation: effects of positive pressure ventilation and inspiratory time. Intensive Care Med 2000, 26:950.
162. Meliones J.N., Bove E.L., Dekeon M.K., et al. High-frequency jet ventilation improves cardiac function after the Fontan procedure. Circulation 1991, 84:III364.
163. Tabbutt S., Ramamoorthy C., Montenegro L.M., et al. Impact of inspired gas mixtures on preoperative infants with hypoplastic left heart syndrome during controlled ventilation. Circulation 2001, 104:I159.
164. Norwood W.I., Kirklin J.K., Sanders S.P. Hypoplastic left heart syndrome: experience with palliative surgery. Am J Cardiol 1980, 45:87.
165. Norwood W.I., Lang P., Casteneda A.R., et al. Experience with operations for hypoplastic left heart syndrome. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1981, 82:511.
166. Norwood W.I., Lang P., Hansen D.D. Physiologic repair of aortic atresia-hypoplastic left heart syndrome. N Engl J Med 1983, 308:23.
167. Tweddell J.S., Hoffman G.M., Mussatto K.A., et al. Improved survival of patients undergoing palliation of hypoplastic left heart syndrome: lessons learned from 115 consecutive patients. Circulation 2002, 106:I82.
168. Malec E., Januszewska K., Kolcz J., et al. Right ventricle-to-pulmonary artery shunt versus modified Blalock-Taussig shunt in the Norwood procedure for hypoplastic left heart syndrome-influence on early and late haemodynamic status. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2003, 23:728.
169. Nelson D.P., Schwartz S.M., Chang A.C. Neonatal physiology of the functionally univentricular heart. Cardiol Young 2004, 14(Suppl 1):52.
170. Scherurer M. Survival and clinical course at Fontan after stage one palliation with either a modified Blalock-Taussig shunt or a right ventricle to pulmonary artery conduit. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008, 52:52.
171. Galantowicz M., Cheatham J.P. Lessons learned from the development of a new hybrid strategy for the management of hypoplastic left heart syndrome. Pediatr Cardiol 2005, 26:190.
172. Galantowicz M., Cheatham J.P., Phillips A., et al. Hybrid approach for hypoplastic left heart syndrome: intermediate results after the learning curve. Ann Thorac Surg 2008, 85:2063.
173. Li J., Zhang G., Benson L., et al. Comparison of the profiles of postoperative systemic hemodynamics and oxygen transport in neonates after the hybrid or the Norwood procedure: a pilot study. Circulation 2007, 116:I179.
174. Hsu D.T., Pearson G.D. Heart failure in children: part I: history, etiology, and pathophysiology. Circ Heart Fail 2009, 2:63.
175. Hsu D.T., Pearson G.D. Heart failure in children: part II: diagnosis, treatment, and future directions. Circ Heart Fail 2009, 2:490.
176. Cheung Y.F., Penny D.J., Redington A.N. Serial assessment of left ventricular diastolic function after Fontan procedure. Heart 2000, 83:420.
177. Gentles T.L., Mayer J.E., Gauvreau K., et al. Fontan operation in five hundred consecutive patients: factors influencing early and late outcome. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997, 114:376.
178. Weipert J. Occurrence and management of atrial arrhythmia after long-term Fontan circulation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2004, 127:457.
179. Khairy P. Long-term survival, modes of death, and predictors of mortality in patients with Fontan surgery. Circulation 2008, 117:85.
180. Fiore A.C., Turrentine M., Rodefeld M., et al. Fontan operation: a comparison of lateral tunnel with extracardiac conduit. Ann Thorac Surg 2007, 83:622.
181. Giannico S., Hammad F., Amodeo A., et al. Clinical outcome of 193 extracardiac Fontan patients: the first 15 years. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006, 47:2065.
182. Cohen M.I., Bridges N.D., Gaynor J.W., et al. Modifications to the cavopulmonary anastomosis do not eliminate early sinus node dysfunction. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000, 120:891.
183. Shirai L.K., Rosenthal D.N., Reitz B.A., et al. Arrhythmias and thromboembolic complications after the extracardiac Fontan operation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1998, 115:499.
184. Ghai A., Harris L., Harrison D.A., et al. Outcomes of late atrial tachyarrhythmias in adults after the Fontan operation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001, 37:585.
185. Abraham W.T., Fisher W.G., Smith A.L., et al. Cardiac resynchronization in chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 2002, 346:1845.
186. Bristow M.R., Saxon L.A., Boehmer J., et al. Cardiac-resynchronization therapy with or without an implantable defibrillator in advanced chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 2004, 350:2140.
187. Dubin A.M., Janousek J., Rhee E., et al. Resynchronization therapy in pediatric and congenital heart disease patients: an international multicenter study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005, 46:2277.
188. Jefferies J.L., Denfield S.W., Price J.F., et al. A prospective evaluation of nesiritide in the treatment of pediatric heart failure. Pediatr Cardiol 2006, 27:402.
189. Hernandez A.F., O'Connor C.M., Starling R.C., et al. Rationale and design of the Acute Study of Clinical Effectiveness of Nesiritide in Decompensated Heart Failure Trial (ASCEND-HF). Am Heart J 2009, 157:271.
190. Gheorghiade M., Pang P.S. Acute heart failure syndromes. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009, 53:557.
191. Follath F., Cleland J.G., Just H., et al. Efficacy and safety of intravenous levosimendan compared with dobutamine in severe low-output heart failure (the LIDO study): a randomised double-blind trial. Lancet 2002, 360:196.
192. Nawarskas J.J., Anderson J.R. Levosimendan: a unique approach to the treatment of heart failure. Heart Dis 2002, 4:265.
193. Slawsky M.T., Colucci W.S., Gottlieb S.S., et al. Acute hemodynamic and clinical effects of levosimendan in patients with severe heart failure. Study Investigators. Circulation 2000, 102:2222.
194. Cleland J.G., McGowan J. Levosimendan: a new era for inodilator therapy for heart failure?. Curr Opin Cardiol 2002, 17:257.
195. Costanzo M.R. Ultrafiltration in the management of heart failure. Curr Opin Crit Care 2008, 14:524.