Recent insight into therapy of congestive heart failure: Focus on ACE inhibition and angiotensin-II antagonism

Journal of the American College of Cardiology

Volumn 33, Issue 5, 1999, Pages 1163-1173

  Rocca, Hans Peter Brunner La ^a,b   Vaddadi, Gautam ^b   Esler, Murray D ^b  

^a Baker Medical Research Institute ^*

^b BAKER IDI HEART AND DIABETES INSTITUTE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN; ANGIOTENSIN 1 RECEPTOR; ANGIOTENSIN 1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANGIOTENSIN 2 RECEPTOR; BRADYKININ; BRADYKININ B1 RECEPTOR; BRADYKININ B2 RECEPTOR; CANDESARTAN; CAPTOPRIL; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; ENALAPRIL; LOSARTAN; PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR INHIBITOR 1;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; ANGIONEUROTIC EDEMA; CELL GROWTH; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; COUGHING; DRUG TOLERABILITY; FIBRINOLYSIS; HEART VENTRICLE REMODELING; HUMAN; KIDNEY DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW;

EID: 0033117207     PISSN: 07351097     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0735-1097(99)00025-X     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Francis GS, Cohn JN, Johnson G, et al. Plasma norepinephrine, plasma renin activity and congestive heart failure. Relations to survival and the effects of therapy in V-HeFT II. Circulation 1993;87 Suppl VI:40-8.
2. Middlekauff HR. Mechanisms and implications of auto-nomic nervous system dysfunction in heart failure. Curr Opin Cardiol 1997;12:265-75.
3. Eichhorn EJ, Bristow MR. Medical therapy can improve the biological properties of the chronically failing heart. Circulation 1996;94:2285-96.
4. Nelson RR, Gobel FL, Jorgensen CR, et al. Hemodynamic predictors of myocardial oxygen consumption during static and dynamic exercise. Circulation 1974;50:1179-89.
5. Weber KT, Brilla CG. Pathological hypertrophy and cardiac interstitium: fibrosis and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system pathological hypertrophy and cardiac interstitium. Fibrosis and renin- angiotensin-aldosterone system. Circulation 1991;83:1849-65.
6. Tan LB, Jalil JE, Pick R, et al. Cardiac myocyte necrosis induced by angiotensin II. Circ Res 1991;69:1185-95.
7. Garg R, Yusuf S. Overview of randomized trials of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors on mortality and morbidity in patients with heart failure. Collaborative Group on ACE Inhibitor Trials. JAMA 1995;273:1450-6.
8. The SOLVD Investigators. Effect of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 1991;325:293-302.
9. The Acute Infarction Ramipril Efficacy (AIRE) Study Investigators. Effect of ramipril on mortality and morbidity of survivors of acute myocardial infarction with clinical evidence of heart failure. Lancet 1993;342:821-8.
10. The CONSENSUS Trial Study Group. Effects of enalapril on mortality in severe congestive heart failure. Results of the Cooperative North Scandinavian Enalapril Survival Study (CONSENSUS). N Engl J Med 1987;316:1429-35.
11. Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E, Moye LA, et al. Effect of captopril on mortality and morbidity in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. Results of the survival and ventricular enlargement trial. The SAVE Investigators. N Engl J Med 1992;327:669-77.
12. Nussberger J, Fleck E, Bahrmann H, et al. Dose-related effects of ACE inhibition in man: quinapril in patients with moderate congestive heart failure. The Study Group on Neurohormonal Regulation in Congestive Heart Failure: Lausanne, Switzerland; Berlin, Dusseldorf, Munich, Germany. Eur Heart J 1994;15 Suppl D:113-22.
13. Cleland JG, Semple P, Hodsman P, et al. Angiotensin II levels, hemodynamics and sympathoadrenal function after low-dose captopril in heart failure. Am J Med 1984;77: 880-6.
14. Cleland JG, Morgan K. Inhibition of the renin-angiotensinaldosterone system in heart failure: new insights from basic clinical research. Curr Opin Cardiol 1996;11:252-62.
15. Borland JA, Chester AH, Morrison KA, Yacoub MH. Alternative pathways of angiotensin II production in the human saphenous vein. Br J Pharmacol 1998;125:423-8.
16. Pitt B. "Escape" of aldosterone production in patients with left ventricular dysfunction treated with an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor: implications for therapy. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1995;9:145-9.
17. Awan NA, Mason DT. Direct selective blockade of the vascular angiotensin II receptors in therapy for hypertension and severe congestive heart failure. Am Heart J 1996;131: 177-85.
18. Yamada T, Horiuchi M, Dzau VJ. Angiotensin II type 2 receptor mediates programmed cell death. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996;93:156-60.
19. Goldberg MR, Bradstreet TE, McWilliams EJ, et al. Biochemical effects of losartan, a nonpeptide angiotensin II receptor antagonist, on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1995;25:37-46.
20. Ahmad S, Ward PE. Role of aminopeptidase activity in the regulation of the pressor activity of circulating angiotensins. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990;252:643-50.
21. Brown NJ, Vaughan DE. The renin-angiotensin and fibrinolytic systems: co-conspirators in the pathogenesis of ischemic cardiovascular disease. Trends Cardiovasc Med 1996;6:239-43.
22. Israili ZH, Hall WD. Cough and angioneurotic edema associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy: a review of the literature and pathophysiology. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:234-42.
23. Pitt B, Chang P, Grossman W, et al. Rationale, background, and design of the randomized angiotensin receptor antagonist - angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor -study (RAAS). Am J Cardiol 1996;78:1129-31.
24. Robert V, Van Thiem N, Cheav SL, et al. Increased cardiac types I and III collagen mRNAs in aldosterone-salt hypertension. Hypertension 1994;24:30-6.
25. Young M, Fullerton M, Dilley R, Funder J. Mineralocorticoids, hypertension, and cardiac fibrosis. J Clin Invest 1994; 93:2578-83.
26. Young M, Head G, Funder J. Determinants of cardiac fibrosis in experimental hypermineralocorticoid states. Am J Physiol 1995;269:E657-62.
27. Sun Y, Ramires FJ, Weber KT. Fibrosis of atria and great vessels in response to angiotensin II or aldosterone infusion. Cardiovasc Res 1997;35:138-47.
28. Johnston CI, Risvanis J. Preclinical pharmacology of angiotensin II receptor antagonists. Update and outstanding issues. Am J Hypertens 1997;10:306S-10S.
29. Juillerat L, Nussberger J, Menard J, et al. Determinants of angiotensin II generation during converting enzyme inhibition. Hypertension 1990;16:564-72.
30. Urata H, Nishimura H, Ganten D. Chymase-dependent angiotensin II forming systems in humans. Am J Hypertens 1996;9:277-84.
31. Cleland JG, Dargie HJ, Ball SG, et al. Effects of enalapril in heart failure: a double blind study of effects on exercise performance, renal function, hormones, and metabolic state. Br Heart J 1985;54:305-12.
32. Cleland JG, Shah D, Krikler S, et al. Effects of lisinopril on cardiorespiratory, neuroendocrine, and renal function in patients with asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction. Br Heart J 1993;69:512-5.
33. Davidson NC, Coutie WJ, Webb DJ, Struthers AD. Hormonal and renal differences between low dose and high dose angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor treatment in patients with chronic heart failure. Heart 1996;75:576-81.
34. Jalil JE, Doering CW, Janicki JS, et al. Fibrillar collagen and myocardial stiffness in the intact hypertrophied rat left ventricle. Circ Res 1989;64:1041-50.
35. Weber KT, Brilla CG, Janicki JS. Myocardial fibrosis: functional significance and regulatory factors. Cardiovasc Res 1993;27:341-8.
36. Weber KT. Extracellular matrix remodeling in heart failure. A role for de novo angiotensin II generation. Circulation 1997;96:4065-82.
37. van Kesteren CA, van Heugten HA, Lamers JM, et al. Angiotensin II-mediated growth and antigrowth effects in cultured neonatal rat cardiac myocytes and fibroblasts. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1997;29:2147-57.
38. Campbell SE, Katwa LC. Angiotensin II stimulated expression of transforming growth factor - beta-1 - in cardiac fibroblasts and myofibroblasts. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1997;29: 1947-58.
39. Makino N, Sugano M, Otsuka S, Hata T. Molecular mechanism of angiotensin II type I and type II receptors in cardiac hypertrophy of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension 1997;30:796-802.
40. Liu YH, Yang XP, Sharov VG, et al. Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonists in rats with heart failure. Role of kinins and angiotensin II type 2 receptors. J Clin Invest 1997;99: 1926-35.
41. Wharton J, Morgan K, Rutherford RA, et al. Differential distribution of angiotensin AT2 receptors in the normal and failing human heart. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1998;284:323-36.
42. Kuizinga MC, Smits JFM, Arends JW, Daemen MJAP. AT2 receptor blockade reduced cardiac interstitial cell DNA synthesis and cardiac function after rat myocardial infarction. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1998;30:425-34.
43. Ford WR, Clanachan AS, Jugdutt BI. Opposite effects of angiotensin AT1 and AT2 receptor antagonists on recovery of mechanical function after ischemia-reperfusion in isolated working rat hearts. Circulation 1996;94:3087-9.
44. Olivetti G, Abbi R, Quaini F, et al. Apoptosis in the failing human heart. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1131-41.
45. Unger T, Chung O, Csikos T, et al. Angiotensin receptors. J Hypertens Suppl 1996;14:S95-103.
46. Scheidegger KJ, Wood JM. Local application of angiotensin II to the rat carotid artery induces adventitial thickening. J Vasc Res 1997;34:436-46.
47. Chen XL, Tummala PE, Olbrych MT, et al. Angiotensin II induces monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 gene expression in rat vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res 1998;83:952-9.
48. Ross R, Bowen-Pope DF, Raines EW. Platelet-derived growth factor: its potential roles in wound healing, atherosclerosis, neoplasia, and growth and development. Ciba Found Symp 1985;116:98-112.
49. Abe J, Deguchi J, Matsumoto T, et al. Stimulated activation of platelet-derived growth factor receptor in vivo in balloon-injured arteries: a link between angiotensin II and intimal thickening. Circulation 1997;96:1906-13.
50. Mancini GB, Henry GC, Macaya C, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition with quinapril improves endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. The TREND (Trial on Reversing ENdothelial Dysfunction) Study. Circulation 1996;94:258-65.
51. Hamsten A, Wiman B, de Faire U, Blomback M. Increased plasma levels of a rapid inhibitor of tissue plasminogen activator in young survivors of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1985;313:1557-63.
52. Kerins DM, Hao Q, Vanghan DE. Angiotensin induction of PAI-1 expression in endothelial cells is mediated by the hexapeptide angiotensin IV. J Clin Invest 1995;96:2515-20.
53. Vaughan DE, Rouleau JL, Ridker PM, et al. Effects of ramipril on plasma fibrinolytic balance in patients with acute anterior myocardial infarction. HEART Study Investigators. Circulation 1997;96:442-7.
54. Raidoo DM, Ramsaroop R, Naidoo S, et al. Kinin receptors in human vascular tissue: their role in atheromatous disease. Immunopharmacology 1997;36:153-60.
55. Mombouli JV, Vanhoutte PM. Heterogeneity of endothelium-dependent vasodilator effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: role of bradykinin generation during ACE inhibition. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1992;20 Suppl 9:874-82.
56. Haefeli WE, Linder L, Luscher TF. Quinaprilat induces arterial vasodilation mediated by nitric oxide in humans. Hypertension 1997;30:912-7.
57. Hornig B, Kohler C, Drexler H. Role of bradykinin in mediating vascular effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in humans. Circulation 1997;95:1115-8.
58. Kuga T, Mohri M, Egashira K, et al. Bradykinin-induced vasodilation of human coronary arteries in vivo: role of nitric oxide and angiotensin-converting enzyme. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;30:108-12.
59. Kichuk MR, Zhang X, Oz M, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors promote nitric oxide production in coronary microvessels from failing explanted human hearts. Am J Cardiol 1997;80:137A-42A.
60. Cheng CP, Onishi K, Ohte N, et al. Functional effects of endogenous bradykinin in congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;31:1679-86.
61. Lortie M, Regoli D, Rhaleb NE, Plante GE. The role of B1-and B2-kinin receptors in the renal tubular and hemodynamic response to bradykinin. Am J Physiol 1992;262: R72-6.
62. Pitt B, Chang P, Timmermans PB. Angiotensin II receptor antagonists in heart failure: rationale and design of the evaluation of losartan in the elderly (ELITE) trial. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1995;9:693-700.
63. Mazayev VP, Fomina IG, Kazakov EN, et al. Valsartan in heart failure patients previously untreated with an ACE inhibitor. Int J Cardiol 1998;65:239-46.
64. Vaughan DE, Rouleau JL, Pfeffer MA. Role of the fibrinolytic system in preventing myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 1995;16 Suppl K:31-6.
65. Brown NJ, Nadeau JH, Vaughan DE. Selective stimulation of tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) in vivo by infusion of bradykinin. Thromb Haemost 1997;77:522-5.
66. Hasan AA, Amenta S, Schmaler AH. Bradykinin and its metabolite, Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Phe, are selective inhibitors of alpha-thrombin-induced platelet activation. Circulation 1996;94:517-28.
67. Geese A, Kis B, Mezei Z, Telegdy G. The effect of bradykinin and substance P on the arachidonate cascade of platelets. Immunopharmacology 1996;33:167-70.
68. Morris SD, Yellon DM. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors potentiate preconditioning through bradykinin B2 receptor activation in human heart. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;29:1599-606.
69. Berkenboom G, Langer I, Carpentier Y, et al. Ramipril prevents endothelial dysfunction induced by oxidized lowdensity lipoproteins: a bradykinin-dependent mechanism. Hypertension 1997;30:371-6.
70. Soler M, Sielczak M, Abraham WM. A bradykinin-antagonist blocks antigen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in sheep. Pulm Pharmacol 1990;3:9 -15.
71. Yeo WW, Chadwick IG, Kraskiewicz M, et al. Resolution of ACE inhibitor cough: changes in subjective cough and responses to inhaled capsaicin, intradermal bradykinin and substance-P. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1995;40:423-9.
72. Malini PL, Strocchi E, Zanardi M, et al. Thromboxane antagonism and cough induced by angiotensin- converting-enzyme inhibitor. Lancet 1997;350:15-8.
73. Umemura K, Nakashima M, Saruta T. Thromboxane A2 synthetase inhibition suppresses cough induced by angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. Life Sci 1997;60:1583-8.
74. Vleeming W, van Amsterdam JG, Stricker BH, de Wildt DJ. ACE inhibitor-induced angioedema. Incidence, prevention and management. Drug Saf 1998;18:171-88.
75. Nussberger J, Cugno M, Amstutz C, et al. Plasma bradykinin in angio-oedema. Lancet 1998;351:1693-7.
76. Gainer JV, Nadeau JH, Ryder D, Brown NJ. Increased sensitivity to bradykinin among African Americans. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1996;98:283-7.
77. Cachofeiro V, Nasjletti A. Increased vascular responsiveness to bradykinin in kidneys of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Effect of N omega-nitro-L-arginine. Hypertension 1991;18: 683-8.
78. Pitt B, Segal R, Martinez FA, et al. Randomised trial of losartan versus captopril in patients over 65 with heart failure. Lancet 1997;349:747-52.
79. Meredith IT, Broughton A, Jennings GL, Esler MD. Evidence for a selective increase in resting cardiac sympathetic activity in patients with sustained ventricular arrhythmias. N Engl J Med 1991;325:618-24.
80. Kaye DM, Lefkovits J, Jennings GL, et al. Adverse consequences of high sympathetic nervous activity in the failing human heart. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:1257-63.
81. Grassi G, Cattaneo BM, Seravalle G, et al. Effects of chronic ACE inhibition on sympathetic nerve traffic and baroreflex control of circulation in heart failure. Circulation 1997;96: 1173-9.
82. Mulligan IP, Fraser AG, Lewis MJ, Henderson AH. Effects of enalapril on myocardial noradrenaline overflow during exercise in patients with chronic heart failure. Br Heart J 1989;61:23-8.
83. Dibner-Dunlap ME, Smith ML, Kinugawa T, Thames MD. Enalaprilat augments arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity in patients with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;27:358-64.
84. Murakami H, Liu JL, Zucker IH. Angiotensin II blockade enhances baroreflex control of sympathetic outflow in heart failure. Hypertension 1997;29:564-9.
85. Bohm M, Zolk O, Flesch M, et al. Effects of angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on cardiac beta-adrenergic signal transduction. Hypertension 1998;31:747-54.
86. Patten RD, Kronenberg MW, Benedict CR, et al. Acute and long-term effects of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, enalapril, on adrenergic activity and sensitivity during exercise in patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Am Heart J 1997;134:37-43.
87. Brasch H, Sierslawski L, Dominiak P. Angiotensin II increases norepinephrine release from atria by acting on angiotensin subtype 1 receptors. Hypertension 1993;22:699-704.
88. Minisi AJ, Thames MD. Distribution of left ventricular sympathetic afferents demonstrated by reflex responses to transmural myocardial ischemia and to intracoronary and epicardial bradykinin. Circulation 1993;87:240-6.
89. Head GA. Role of AT1 receptors in the central control of sympathetic vasomotor function. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol Suppl 1996;3:S93-8.
90. Mazzocchi G, Gottardo G, Macchi V, et al. The AT2 receptor-mediated stimulation of adrenal catecholamine release may potentiate the AT1 receptor-mediated aldosterone secretagogue action of angiotensin-II in rats. Endocr Res 1998;24:17-28.
91. Hasking GJ, Esler MD, Jennings GL, et al. Norepinephrine spillover to plasma in patients with congestive heart failure: evidence of increased overall and cardiorenal sympathetic nervous activity. Circulation 1986;73:615-21.
92. DiBona GF, Jones SY, Sawin LL. Angiotensin receptor antagonist improves cardiac reflex control of renal sodium handling in heart failure. Am J Physiol 1998;274:H636-41.
93. Dickstein K, Chang P, Willenheimer R, et al. Comparison of the effects of losartan and enalapril on clinical status and exercise performance in patients with moderate or severe chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:438-45.
94. Lang RM, Elkayam U, Yellen LG, et al. Comparative effects of losartan and enalapril on exercise capacity and clinical status in patients with heart failure: The Losartan Pilot Exercise Study Investigators. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;30: 983-91.
95. Guazzi M, Melzi G, Agostoni P. Comparison of changes in respiratory function and exercise oxygen uptake with losartan versus enalapril in congestive heart failure secondary to ischemic or idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1997;80:1572-6.
96. Vijay N, Alhaddad IA, Marty-Denny D, et al. Irbesartan compared with lisinopril in patients with mild to moderate heart failure [abstr]. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;31:68A.
97. Yusuf S, Maggioni AP, Rouleau JL. Effects of candesartan, enalapril or their combination on exercise capacity, ventricular function, clinical deterioration and quality of life in heart failure: randomized evaluation of strategies for left ventricular dysfunction (RESOLVD) [abstr]. Circulation 1997;96 Suppl 1:1-452.
98. Baruch L, Andan IS, Judd DL, et al. Hemodynamic response to AT1 receptor blockade with valsartan in ACE inhibitor treated patients with heart failure [abstr]. Circulation 1996;94 Suppl 1:1-428.
99. Tocchi M, Rosanio S, Anzuini A, et al. Angiotensin II receptor blockade combined to ACE-inhibition improves left ventricular dilation and exercise ejection fraction in congestive heart failure [abstr]. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;31: 188A.
100. Hamroff G, Blaufarb I, Mancini D, et al. Angiotensin II-receptor blockade further reduces afterload safely in patients maximally treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors for heart failure. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1997;30: 533-6.
101. Stafford RS, Saglam D, Blumenthal D. National patterns of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use in congestive heart failure. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:2460-4.
102. Philbin EF, Andreaou C, Rocco TA, et al. Patterns of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use in congestive heart failure in two community hospitals. Am J Cardiol 1996;77:832-8.
103. Stevenson WG, Stevenson LW, Middlekauff HR, et al. Improving survival for patients with advanced heart failure: a study of 737 consecutive patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 26:1417-23.
104. Bart BA, Gattis WA, Diem SJ, O'Connor CM. Reasons for underuse of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in patients with heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction. Am J Cardiol 1997;79:1118-20.
105. Luzier AB, Forrest A, Adelman M, et al. Impact of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor underdosing on rehospitalization rates in congestive heart failure. Am J Cardiol 1998;82:465-9.
106. Pacher R, Stanek B, Globits S, et al. Effects of two different enalapril dosages on clinical, haemodynamic and neurohumoral response of patients with severe congestive heart failure. Eur Heart J 1996;17:1223-32.
107. Riegger GA. Effects of quinapril on exercise tolerance in patients with mild to moderate heart failure. Eur Heart J 1991;12:705-11.
108. Brunner-La Rocca HP, Weilenmann D, Fatio R, et al. Dosage of enalapril, exercise capacity and natriuretic peptides in patients with congestive heart failure [abstr]. Eur Heart J 1997;18:403.
109. Komajda M, Wimart MC, Thibout E. L'étude ATLAS (Assessment of Treatment with Lisinopril and Survival); justification et objectifs. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 1994;87 Spec 2:45-50.
110. The NETWORK Investigators. Clinical outcome with enalapril in symptomatic chronic heart failure; a dose comparison. Eur Heart J 1998;19:481-9.
111. Houghton AR, Cowley AJ. Why are angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors underutilised in the treatment of heart failure by general practitioners? Int J Cardiol 1997;59:7-10.
112. Deedwania PC. Underutilization of evidence-based therapy in heart failure. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:2409-12.
113. Brunner-La Rocca HP, Weilenmann D, Kiowski W, et al. Plasma levels of enalaprilat in chronic therapy of heart failure: relationship to adverse events. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999; [in press].
114. Packer M, Lee WH, Yushak M, Medina N. Comparison of captopril and enalapril in patients with severe chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 1986;315:847-53.
115. Todd PA, Heel RC. Enalapril. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic use hypertension and congestive heart failure. Drugs 1986:31: 198-248.
116. Cody RJ, Covit AB, Schaer GL, Laragh JH. Evaluation of a long-action converting enzyme inhibitor (enalapril) for the treatment of chronic congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 1983:1:1154-9.
117. Hasford J, Ansari H, Lehmann K. CART and logistic regression analyses of risk factors for first dose hypotension by an ACE-inhibitor. Therapie 1993;48:479-82.
118. McLay JS, McMurray J, Bridges A, Struthers AD. Practical issues when initiating captopril therapy in chronic heart failure. What is the appropriate dose and how long should patients be observed? Eur Heart J 1992;13:1521-7.
119. Flapan AD, Davies E, Williams BC, et al. The relationship between diuretic dose, and the haemodynamic response to captopril in patients with cardiac failure. Eur Heart J 1992; 13:971-5.
120. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of heart failure. Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:1376-98.
121. Bouaziz H, Joulin Y, Safer M, Benetos A. Effects of bradykinin B2 receptor antagonism on the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibition. Br J Pharmacol 1994;113:717-22.
122. Benetos A, Gavras H, Stewart JM, et al. Vasodepressor role of endogenous bradykinin assessed by a bradykinin antagonist. Hypertension 1986;8:971-4.
123. Sica DA, Deedwania PC. Renal considerations in the use of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors in the treatment of congestive heart failure. J Card Fail 1997;3:54-9.
124. Maschio G, Alberti D, Janin G, et al. Effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor benazepril on the progression of chronic renal insufficiency. The Angiotensin-Converting-Enzyme Inhibition in Progressive Renal Insufficiency Study Group. N Engl J Med 1996;334:939-45.
125. Demeilliers B, Jover B, Mimran A. Renal function in one-kidney, one clip sodium-restricted rats; influence of enalapril and losartan. J Hypertens 1995;13:1764-6.
126. Ravid D, Lishner M, Lang R, Ravid M. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and cough: a prospective evaluation in hypertension and in congestive heart failure. J Clin Pharmacol 1994;34:1116-20.
127. Overlack A. ACE inhibitor-induced cough and bronchospasm. Incidence, mechanisms and management. Drug Saf 1996;15:72-8.
128. Yesil S, Yesil M, Bayata S, Postaci N. ACE inhibitors and cough. Angiology 1994;45:805-8.
129. Semple PF. Putative mechanisms of cough after treatment with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. J Hypertens Suppl 1995;13 Suppl 3:817-21.
130. Kubota K, Kubota N, Pearce GL, Inman WH. ACE-inhibitor-induced cough, an adverse drug reaction unrecognised for several years: studies in prescription-event monitoring. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1996;49:431-7.
131. Benz J, Oshrain C, Henry D, et al. Valsartan, a new angiotensin II receptor antagonist: a double-blind study comparing the incidence of cough with lisinopril and hydrochlorothiazide. J Clin Pharmacol 1997;37:101-7.
132. Chan P, Tomlinson B, Huang TY, et al. Double-blind comparison of losartan, lisinopril, and metolazone in elderly hypertensive patients with previous angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-induced cough. J Clin Pharmacol 1997;37: 253-7.
133. Stafford RS, Blumenthal D, Pasternak RC. Variations in cholesterol management practices of U.S. physicians. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;29:139-46.
134. Stafford RS, Singer DE. National patterns of warfarin use in atrial fibrillation. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:2537-41.
135. Deedwania PC, Amsterdam EA, Vagelos RH. Evidencebased, cost-effective risk stratification and management after myocardial infarction. California Cardiology Working Group on Post-MI Management. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157:273-80.