Interactive effect of cigarette smoking and gene variants for predisposing to cardiovascular disease

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 16, Issue 23, 2010, Pages 2531-2538

  Armani, Chiara ^a   Landini, Linda ^a   Leone, Aurelio ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PISA   (Italy)

^b Royal Society for Promotion of Health   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Cigarette smoking; Gene variant(s)

Indexed keywords

ARYLDIALKYLPHOSPHATASE 1; ENDOTHELIAL NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; OXIDIZED LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN;

ARTICLE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CIGARETTE SMOKING; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DNA POLYMORPHISM; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HUMAN; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; PASSIVE SMOKING; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

EID: 77955624523     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/138161210792062885     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Howard G, Wagenknecht LE, Burke GL, et al. Cigarette smoking and progression of atherosclerosis: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. JAMA 1998; 279: 119-24.
2. Barnoya J, Glantz SA. Cardiovascular effects of secondhand smoke: nearly as large as smoking. Circulation 2005; 111: 2684-98.
3. Leone A. Cigarette smoking and cardiovascular damage: analytic review of the subject. Singapore Med J 1994; 35: 492-4.
4. Leone A. Cigarette smoking and health of the heart. J R Soc Health 1995; 115: 354-5.
5. Leone A. Relationship between cigarette smoking and other coronary risk factors in atherosclerosis: risk of cardiovascular disease and preventive measures. Curr Pharm Design 2003; 29: 2417-23.
6. Leone A. Smoking, haemostatic factors, and cardiovascular risk. Curr Pharm Design 2007; 13: 1661-7.
7. Leone A, Balbarini A. Exposure to passive smoking: a test to predict endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerotic lesions. Angiology 2008; 59: 220-3.
8. Leone A, Landini L, Jr, Biadi O, Balbarini A. Smoking and cardiovascular system: cellular features of the damage. Curr Pharm Design 2008; 14: 1771-7.
9. Armani C, Landini L, Jr, Leone A. Molecular and biochemical changes of the cardiovascular system due to smoking exposure. Curr Pharm Des 2009; 15: 1038-53.
10. Ezzati M, Lopez AD. Estimates of global mortality attributable to smoking in 2000. Lancet 2003; 362: 847-52.
11. Smith CJ, Fischer TH. Particulate and vapor phase constituents ofcigarette mainstream smoke and risk of myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis 2001; 158: 257-67-72.
12. Celermajer DS, Adams MR, Clarkson P, et al. Passive smoking and impaired endothelium-dependent arterial dilatation in healthy young adults. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 150-4.
13. Woo KS, Chook P, Leong HC, Huang XS, Celermajer DS. The impact of heavy passive smoking on arterial endothelial function in modernized Chinese. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 36: 1228-32.
14. Szmitko PE, Wang CH, Weisel RD, de Almeida JR, Anderson TJ, Verma S. New markers of inflammation and endothelial cell activation: Part I. Circulation 2003; 108: 1917-23.
15. Marletta MA. Nitric oxide synthase: aspects concerning structure and catalysis. Cell 1994; 78: 927-30.
16. Cooke JP, Dzau VJ. Nitric oxide synthase: role in the genesis of vascular disease. Annu Rev Med 1997; 48: 489-509.
17. Bannan S, Mansfield MW, Grant PJ. Soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and E-selectin levels in relation to vascular risk factors and to E-selectin genotype in the first degree relatives of NIDDM patients and in NIDDM patients. Diabetologia 1998; 41: 460-6.
18. Weitzberg E, Lundberg JO. Nonenzymatic nitric oxide production in humans. Nitric Oxide 1998; 2: 1-7.
19. Sase K, Michel T. Expression of constitutive endothelial nitric oxide synthase in human blood platelets. Life Sci 1995; 57: 2049-55.
20. Christopherson KS, Bredt DS. Nitric oxide in excitable tissues: physiological roles and disease. J Clin Invest 1997; 100: 2424-9.
21. List BM, Klösch B, Völker C, et al. Characterization of bovine endothelial nitric oxide synthase as a homodimer with downregulated uncoupled NADPH oxidase activity: tetrahydrobiopterin binding kinetics and role of haem in dimerization. Biochem J 1997; 323: 159-65.
22. Leone AM, Palmer RM, Knowles RG, Francis PL, Ashton DS, Moncada S. Constitutive and inducible nitric oxide synthases incorporate molecular oxygen into both nitric oxide and citrulline. J Biol Chem 1991; 266: 23790-5.
23. Huk I, Nanobashvili J, Neumayer C, et al. L-arginine treatment alters the kinetics of nitric oxide and superoxide release and reduces ischemia/reperfusion injury in skeletal muscle. Circulation 1997; 96: 667-75.
24. Gorren AC, List BM, Schrammel A, et al. Tetrahydrobiopterin-free neuronal nitric oxide synthase: evidence for two identical highly anticooperative pteridine binding sites. Biochemistry 1996; 35: 16735-45.
25. Beckman JS, Koppenol WH. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly. Am J Physiol 1996; 271: 1424-37.
26. Beckman JS. Peroxynitrite versus hydroxyl radical: the role of nitric oxide in superoxide-dependent cerebral injury. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994; 738: 69-75.
27. Ichiki K, Ikeda H, Haramaki N, Ueno T, Imaizumi T. Long-term smoking impairs platelet-derived nitric oxide release. Circulation 1996; 94: 3109-14.
28. Adams MR, Jessup W, Celermajer DS. Cigarette smoking is associated with increased human monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells: reversibility with oral L-arginine but not vitamin C. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 29: 491-7.
29. Hutchison SJ, Reitz MS, Sudhir K, et al. Chronic dietary Larginine prevents endothelial dysfunction secondary to environmental tobacco smoke in normocholesterolemic rabbits. Hypertension 1997; 29: 1186-91.
30. Ueda S, Matsuoka H, Miyazaki H, Usui M, Okuda S, Imaizumi T. Tetrahydrobiopterin restores endothelial function in long-term smokers. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 35: 71-5.
31. Heitzer T, Brockhoff C, Mayer B, et al. Tetrahydrobiopterin improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in chronic smokers: evidence for a dysfunctional nitric oxide synthase. Circ Res 2000; 86: E36-41.
32. Wang HY, Ma L, Li Y, Cho CH.The role of nitric oxide on cigarette smoke-induced programmed cell death in the gastric mucosa. Scand J Gastroenterol 2001; 36: 235-40.
33. Higman DJ, Strachan AM, Buttery L, et al. Smoking impairs the activity of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in saphenous vein. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; 16: 546-52.
34. Han W, Giraldo C, De Li Y, Block ER, Su Y. Effect of cigarette smoke extract on nitric oxide synthase in pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1998; 19: 819-25.
35. Cho CH. Current roles of nitric oxide in gastrointestinal disorders. J Physiol Paris 2001; 95: 253-6.
36. Ko JK, Sham NF, Guo X, Cho CH. Beneficial intervention of experimental colitis by passive cigarette smoking through the modulation of cytokines in rats. J Investig Med 2001; 49: 21-9.
37. Wang J, Dudley D, Wang XL. Haplotype-specific effects on endothelial NO synthase promoter efficiency: modifiable by cigarette smoking. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: e1-4.
38. Wang XL, Mahaney MC, Sim AS, et al. Genetic contribution of the endothelial constitutive nitric oxide synthase gene to plasma nitric oxide levels. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17: 3147-53.
39. Blaes N, Piovella F, Samaden A, Boutherin-Falson O, Ricetti M. Nicotine alters fibronectin and factor VIII/vWF in human vascular endothelial cells. Br J Haematol 1986; 64: 675-87.
40. Smith FB, Lowe GD, Fowkes FG, et al. Smoking, haemostatic factors and lipid peroxides in a population case control study of peripheral arterial disease. Atherosclerosis 1993; 102: 155-62.
41. Markuljak I, Ivankova J, Kubisz P. Thrombomodulin and von Willebrand factor in smokers and during smoking. Nouv Rev Fr Hematol 1995; 37: 137-9.
42. Price JF, Mowbray PI, Lee AJ, Rumley A, Lowe GD, Fowkes FG. Relationship between smoking and cardiovascular risk factors in the development of peripheral arterial disease and coronary artery disease: Edinburgh Artery Study. Eur Heart J 1999; 20: 344-53.
43. Haak T, Jungmann E, Raab C, Usadel KH. Elevated endothelin-1 levels after cigarette smoking. Metabolism 1994; 43: 267-9.
44. Goerre S, Staehli C, Shaw S, Lüscher TF. Effect of cigarette smoking and nicotine on plasma endothelin-1 levels. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1995; 26: S236-8.
45. Letizia C, Cerci S, Subioli S, Scuro L, Clemente G. Increased plasma endothelin-1 after nicotine consumption in nonsmokers. Clin Chem 1997; 43: 2440-1.
46. Kuo BS, Dryjski M, Bjornsson TD. Influence of nicotine and cotinine on the expression of plasminogen activator activity in bovine aortic endothelial cells. Thromb Haemost 1989; 61: 70-6.
47. Zidovetzki R, Chen P, Fisher M, Hofman FM, Faraci FM. Nicotine increases plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 production by human brain endothelial cells via protein kinase C-associated pathway. Stroke 1999; 30: 651-5.
48. Ota Y, Kugiyama K, Sugiyama S, et al. Impairment of endothelium- dependent relaxation of rabbit aortas by cigarette smoke ex tract--role of free radicals and attenuation by captopril. Atherosclerosis 1997; 131: 195-202.
49. Chalon S, Moreno H, Jr, Hoffman BB, Blaschke TF. Angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibition improves venous endothelial dysfunction in chronic smokers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999; 65: 295-303.
50. Cucina A, Corvino V, Sapienza P, et al. Nicotine regulates basic fibroblastic growth factor and transforming growth factor beta1 production in endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 257: 306-12.
51. Zhang S, Day I, Ye S. Nicotine induced changes in gene expression by human coronary artery endothelial cells. Atherosclerosis 2001; 154: 277-83.
52. Guengerich FP. Cytochromes P-450. Comp Biochem Physiol C 1988; 89: 1-4.
53. Guengerich FP. Roles of cytochrome P-450 enzymes in chemical carcinogenesis and cancer chemotherapy. Cancer Res 1988; 48: 2946-54.
54. Ingelman-Sundberg M. Genetic susceptibility to adverse effects of drugs and environmental toxicants. The role of the CYP family of enzymes. Mutat Res 2001; 482: 11-9.
55. McNamara P, FitzGerald GA. Smoking-induced vascular disease: a new twist on an old theme. Circ Res 2001; 89: 563-5.
56. McManus ME, Burgess WM, Veronese ME, Huggett A, Quattrochi LC, Tukey RH. Metabolism of 2-acetylaminofluorene and benzo(a)pyrene and activation of food-derived heterocyclic amine mutagens by human cytochromes P-450. Cancer Res 1990; 50: 3367-76.
57. Roberts-Thomson SJ, McManus ME, Tukey RH, Gonzalez FF, Holder GM. The catalytic activity of four expressed human cytochrome P450s towards benzo[a]pyrene and the isomers of its proximate carcinogen. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1993; 192: 1373-9.
58. Kerzee JK, Ramos KS. Constitutive and inducible expression of Cyp1a1 and Cyp1b1 in vascular smooth muscle cells: role of the Ahr bHLH/PAS transcription factor. Circ Res 2001; 89: 573-82.
59. Kerzee JK, Ramos KS. Activation of c-Ha-ras by benzo(a)pyrene in vascular smooth muscle cells involves redox stress and aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Mol Pharmacol 2000; 58: 152-8.
60. Thirman MJ, Albrecht JH, Krueger MA, et al. Induction of cytochrome CYPIA1 and formation of toxic metabolites of benzo[a]pyrene by rat aorta: a possible role in atherogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1994; 91: 5397-401.
61. Isner JM. Cancer and atherosclerosis: the broad mandate of angiogenesis. Circulation 1999; 99: 1653-5.
62. Schwartz SM, Murry CE. Proliferation and the monoclonal origins of atherosclerotic lesions. Annu Rev Med 1998; 49: 437-60.
63. Hansen ES. International Commission for Protection Against Environmental Mutagens and Carcinogens. ICPEMC Working Paper 7/1/2. Shared risk factors for cancer and atherosclerosis--a review of the epidemiological evidence. Mutat Res 1990; 239: 163-79.
64. Wang XL, Greco M, Sim AS, Duarte N, Wang J, Wilcken DE. Glutathione S-transferase mu1 deficiency, cigarette smoking and coronary artery disease. J Cardiovasc Risk 2002; 9: 25-31.
65. Li R, Boerwinkle E, Olshan AF, et al. Glutathione S-transferase genotype as a susceptibility factor in smoking-related coronary heart disease. Atherosclerosis 2000; 149: 451-62.
66. Wilson MH, Grant PJ, Hardie LJ, Wild CP. Glutathione Stransferase M1 null genotype is associated with a decreased risk of myocardial infarction. FASEB J 2000; 14: 791-6.
67. Ketterer B, Christodoulides LG. Enzymology of cytosolic glutathione S-transferases. Adv Pharmacol 1994; 27: 37-69.
68. Masetti S, Botto N, Manfredi S, et al. Interactive effect of the glutathione S-transferase genes and cigarette smoking on occurrence and severity of coronary artery risk. J Mol Med 2003; 81: 488-94.
69. Kim SJ, Kim MG, Kim KS, Song JS, Yim SV, Chung JH. Impact of glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1 gene polymorphisms on the smoking-related coronary artery disease. J Korean Med Sci 2008; 23: 365-72.
70. Wilson MH, Grant PJ, Hardie LJ, Wild CP. Glutathione Stransferase M1 null genotype is associated with a decreased risk of myocardial infarction. FASEB J 2000; 14: 791-6.
71. Berhane K, Widersten M, Engström A, Kozarich JW, Mannervik B. Detoxication of base propenals and other alpha, beta-unsaturated aldehyde products of radical reactions and lipid peroxidation by human glutathione transferases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 1480-4.
72. Conklin DJ, Haberzettl P, Prough RA, Bhatnagar A. Glutathione-Stransferase P protects against endothelial dysfunction induced by exposure to tobacco smoke. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2009; 296: H1586-97.
73. Harries LW, Stubbins MJ, Forman D, Howard GC, Wolf CR. Identification of genetic polymorphisms at the glutathione S-transferase Pi locus and association with susceptibility to bladder, testicular and prostate cancer. Carcinogenesis 1997; 18: 641-4.
74. Watson MA, Stewart RK, Smith GB, Massey TE, Bell DA. Human glutathione S-transferase P1 polymorphisms: relationship to lung tissue enzyme activity and population frequency distribution. Carcinogenesis 1998; 19: 275-80.
75. Pal A, Hu X, Zimniak P, Singh SV. Catalytic efficiencies of allelic variants of human glutathione S-transferase Pi in the glutathione conjugation of alpha, beta-unsaturated aldehydes. Cancer Lett 2000, 154: 39-43.
76. Tsai CW, Yang JJ, Chen HW, Sheen LY, Lii CK. Garlic organosulfur compounds upregulate the expression of the pi class of glutathione S-transferase in rat primary hepatocytes. J Nutr 2005; 135: 2560-5.
77. 't Hoen PA, Rooseboom M, Bijsterbosch MK, van Berkel TJ, Vermeulen NP, Commandeur JN. Induction of glutathione-Stransferase mRNA levels by chemopreventive selenocysteine Seconjugates. Biochem Pharmacol 2002; 63: 1843-9.
78. Steinkellner H, Hoelzl C, Uhl M, et al. Coffee consumption induces GSTP in plasma and protects lymphocytes against (+/-)-antibenzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide induced DNAdamage: results of controlled human intervention trials. Mutat Res 2005; 591: 264-75.
79. Beckman JS, Koppenol WH. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly. Am J Physiol 1996; 271: C1424-37.
80. Kröncke KD, Fehsel K, Kolb-Bachofen V. Nitric oxide: cytotoxicity versus cytoprotection--how, why, when, and where? Nitric Oxide 1997; 1: 107-20.
81. Heinecke JW, Lusis AJ. Paraoxonase-gene polymorphisms associated with coronary heart disease: support for the oxidative damage hypothesis? Am J Hum Genet 1998; 62: 20-4.
82. Huraux C, Makita T, Kurz S, et al. Superoxide production, risk factors, and endothelium-dependent relaxations in human internal mammary arteries. Circulation 1999; 99: 53-9.
83. Isoherranen K, Peltola V, Laurikainen L, et al. Regulation of copper/ zinc and manganese superoxide dismutase by UVB irradiation, oxidative stress and cytokines. J Photochem Photobiol B 1997; 40: 288-93.
84. Johansson MH, Deinum J, Marklund SL, Sjöquist PO. Recombinant human extracellular superoxide dismutase reduces concentration of oxygen free radicals in the reperfused rat heart. Cardiovasc Res 1990; 24: 500-3.
85. Jackson TS, Xu A, Vita JA, Keaney JF, Jr. Ascorbate prevents the interaction of superoxide and nitric oxide only at very high physiological concentrations. Circ Res 1998; 83: 916-22.
86. Pryor WA, Stone K. Oxidants in cigarette smoke. Radicals, hydrogen peroxide, peroxynitrate, and peroxynitrite. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993; 686: 12-27; discussion 27-8.
87. Ma XL, Lopez BL, Liu GL, et al. Hypercholesterolemia impairs a detoxification mechanism against peroxynitrite and renders the vascular tissue more susceptible to oxidative injury.Circ Res 1997; 80: 894-901.
88. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Khoo JC, Witztum JL. Beyond cholesterol. Modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 915-24.
89. Steinberg D. A critical look at the evidence for the oxidation of LDL in atherogenesis. Atherosclerosis 1997; 131 Suppl: S5-7.
90. Steinberg FM, Chait A. Antioxidant vitamin supplementation and lipid peroxidation in smokers. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 68: 319-27.
91. Salonen JT, Nyyssönen K, Salonen R, et al. Lipoprotein oxidation and progression of carotid atherosclerosis. Circulation 1997; 95: 840-5.
92. Sankaranarayanan K, Chakraborty R, Boerwinkle EA. Ionizing radiation and genetic risks. VI. Chronic multifactorial diseases: a review of epidemiological and genetical aspects of coronary heart disease, essential hypertension and diabetes mellitus. Mutat Res 1999; 436: 21-57.
93. Mackness MI, Durrington PN. HDL, its enzymes and its potential to influence lipid peroxidation. Atherosclerosis 1995; 115: 243-53.
94. Mackness B, Mackness MI, Arrol S, Turkie W, Durrington PN. Effect of the human serum paraoxonase 55 and 192 genetic polymorphisms on the protection by high density lipoprotein against low density lipoprotein oxidative modification. FEBS Lett 1998; 423: 57-60.
95. Aviram M, Hardak E, Vaya J, et al. Human serum paraoxonases (PON1) Q and R selectively decrease lipid peroxides in human coronary and carotid atherosclerotic lesions: PON1 esterase and peroxidase-like activities. Circulation 2000; 101: 2510-7.
96. McElveen J, Mackness MI, Colley CM, Peard T, Warner S, Walker CH. Distribution of paraoxon hydrolytic activity in the serum of patients after myocardial infarction. Clin Chem 1986; 32: 671-3.
97. Mackness MI, Harty D, Bhatnagar D, et al. Serum paraoxonase activity in familial hypercholesterolaemia and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerosis 1991; 86: 193-9.
98. Davies HG, Richter RJ, Keifer M, Broomfield CA, Sowalla J, Furlong CE. The effect of the human serum paraoxonase polymorphism is reversed with diazoxon, soman and sarin. Nat Genet 1996; 14: 334-6.
99. Yamasaki Y, Sakamoto K, Watada H, Kajimoto Y, Hori M. The Arg192 isoform of paraoxonase with low sarin-hydrolyzing activity is dominant in the Japanese. Hum Genet 1997; 101: 67-8.
100. Garin MC, James RW, Dussoix P, et al. Paraoxonase polymorphism Met-Leu54 is associated with modified serum concentrations of the enzyme. A possible link between the paraoxonase gene and increased risk of cardiovascular disease in diabetes. J Clin Invest 1997; 99: 62-6.
101. Adkins S, Gan KN, Mody M, La Du BN. Molecular basis for the polymorphic forms of human serum paraoxonase/arylesterase: glutamine or arginine at position 191, for the respective A or B allozymes. Am J Hum Genet 1993; 52: 598-608.
102. Humbert R, Adler DA, Disteche CM, Hassett C, Omiecinski CJ, Furlong CE. The molecular basis of the human serum paraoxonase activity polymorphism. Nat Genet 1993; 3: 73-6.
103. Serrato M, Marian AJ. A variant of human paraoxonase/ arylesterase (HUMPONA) gene is a risk factor for coronary artery disease. J Clin Invest 1995; 96: 3005-8.
104. Pati N, Pati U. Paraoxonase gene polymorphism and coronary arterydisease in Indian subjects. Int J Cardiol 1998; 66: 165-8.
105. Schmidt H, Schmidt R, Niederkorn K, et al. Paraoxonase PON1 polymorphism leu-Met54 is associated with carotid atherosclerosis: results of the Austrian Stroke Prevention Study. Stroke 1998; 29: 2043-8.
106. Balcerzyk A, Zak I, Krauze J. Synergistic effects between Q192R polymorphism of paraoxonase 1 gene and some conventional risk factors in premature coronary artery disease. Arch Med Res 2007; 38: 545-50.
107. Sentí M, Aubó C, Tomás M. Differential effects of smoking on myocardial infarction risk according to the Gln/Arg 192 variants of the human paraoxonase gene. Metabolism 2000; 49: 557-9.
108. Sanghera DK, Saha N, Aston CE, Kamboh MI. Genetic polymorphism of paraoxonase and the risk of coronary heart disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17: 1067-73.
109. Agachan B, Yilmaz H, Ergen HA, Karaali ZE, Isbir T. Paraoxonase (PON1) 55 and 192 polymorphism and its effects to oxidantantioxidant system in turkish patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Physiol Res 2005; 54: 287-93.
110. Kuremoto K, Watanabe Y, Ohmura H, Shimada K, Mokuno H, Daida H. R/R genotype of human paraoxonase (PON1) is more protective against lipoprotein oxidation and coronary artery disease in Japanese subjects. J Atheroscler Thromb 2003; 10: 85-92.
111. Aviram M, Billecke S, Sorenson R, et al. Paraoxonase active site required for protection against LDL oxidation involves its free sulfhydryl group and is different from that required for its arylesterase/ paraoxonase activities: selective action of human paraoxonase allozymes Q and R.Thromb Vasc Biol 1998; 18: 1617-24.
112. Garin MC, James RW, Dussoix P, et al. Paraoxonase polymorphism Met-Leu54 is associated with modified serum concentrations of the enzyme. A possible link between the paraoxonase gene and increased risk of cardiovascular disease in diabetes. J Clin Invest 1997; 99: 62-6.
113. Arca M, Ombres D, Montali A, et al. PON1 L55M polymorphism is not a predictor of coronary atherosclerosis either alone or in combination with Q192R polymorphism in an Italian population. Eur J Clin Invest 2002; 32: 9-15.
114. Robertson KS, Hawe E, Miller GJ, Talmud PJ, Humphries SE. Human paraoxonase gene cluster polymorphisms as predictors of coronary heart disease risk in the prospective Northwick Park Heart Study II. Northwick Park Heart Study II. Biochim Biophys Acta 2003; 1639: 203-12.
115. Lacinski M, Skorupski W, Cieslinski A, Sokolowska J, Trzeciak WH, Jakubowski H. Determinants of homocysteine-thiolactonase activity of the paraoxonase-1 (PON1) protein in humans. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand) 2004; 50: 885-93.
116. Primo-Parmo SL, Sorenson RC, Teiber J, La Du BN. The human serum paraoxonase/arylesterase gene (PON1) is one member of a multigene family. Genomics 1996; 33: 498-507.
117. Sanghera DK, Aston CE, Saha N, Kamboh MIDNA polymorphisms in two paraoxonase genes (PON1 and PON2) are associated with the risk of coronary heart disease. Am J Hum Genet 1998; 62: 36-44.
118. Leus FR, Zwart M, Kastelein JJ, Voorbij HA. PON2 gene variants are associated with clinical manifestations of cardiovascular disease in familial hypercholesterolemia patients. Atherosclerosis 2001; 54: 641-9.
119. Chen Q, Reis SE, Kammerer CM, et al. Association between the severity of angiographic coronary artery disease and paraoxonase gene polymorphisms in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute- sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) study. Am J Hum Genet 2003; 72: 13-22.
120. Ng CJ, Wadleigh DJ, Gangopadhyay A, et al. Paraoxonase-2 is aubiquitously expressed protein with antioxidant properties and is capable of preventing cell-mediated oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein. J Biol Chem 2001; 276: 44444-9.
121. Hegèle RA. Paraoxonase genes and disease. Ann Med 1999; 31(3): 217-24.
122. Sanghera DK, Aston CE, Saha N, Kamboh MI. DNA polymorphisms in two paraoxonase genes (PON1 and PON2) are associated with the risk of coronary heart disease. Am J Hum Genet 1998; 62: 36-44.
123. Martinelli N, Girelli D, Olivieri O, et al. Interaction between smoking and PON2 Ser311Cys polymorphism as a determinant of the risk of myocardial infarction. Eur J Clin Invest 2004; 34: 14-20.
124. Wang X, Fan Z, Huang J, et al. Extensive association analysis between polymorphisms of PON gene cluster with coronary heart disease in Chinese Han population. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003; 23: 328-34.
125. Wheeler JG, Keavney BD, Watkins H, Collins R, Danesh J. Fourparaoxonase gene polymorphisms in 11212 cases of coronary heart disease and 12786 controls: meta-analysis of 43 studies. Lancet 2004; 363: 689-95.
126. Robertson KS, Hawe E, Miller GJ, Talmud PJ, Humphries SE. Human paraoxonase gene cluster polymorphisms as predictors of coronary heart disease risk in the prospective Northwick Park Heart Study II. Northwick Park Heart Study II. Biochim Biophys Acta 2003; 1639: 203-12.
127. Imai Y, Morita H, Kurihara H, et al. Evidence for association between paraoxonase gene polymorphisms and atherosclerotic diseases. Atherosclerosis 2000; 149: 435-42.
128. Topić E, Simundić AM, Ttefanović M, et al. Polymorphism of apoprotein E (APOE), methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) and paraoxonase (PON1) genes in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Clin Chem Lab Med 2001; 39: 346-50.
129. Voetsch B, Benke KS, Damasceno BP, Siqueira LH, Loscalzo J. Paraoxonase 192 Gln-->Arg polymorphism: an independent risk factor for nonfatal arterial ischemic stroke among young adults. Stroke. 2002; 33: 1459-64.
130. Voetsch B, Benke KS, Panhuysen CI, Damasceno BP, Loscalzo J. The combined effect of paraoxonase promoter and coding region polymorphisms on the risk of arterial ischemic stroke among young adults. Arch Neurol 2004; 61: 351-6.
131. Ranade K, Kirchgessner TG, Iakoubova OA, et al. Evaluation of the paraoxonases as candidate genes for stroke: Gln192Arg polymorphism in the paraoxonase 1 gene is associated with increased risk of stroke. Stroke 2005; 36: 2346-50.
132. Talmud PJ, Humphries SE. Gene: environment interaction in lipid metabolism and effect on coronary heart disease risk. Curr Opin Lipidol 2002; 13: 149-54.
133. Davignon J, Gregg RE, Sing CF. Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and atherosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis 1988; 8: 1-21.
134. Wilson PW, Schaefer EJ, Larson MG, Ordovas JM. Apolipoprotein E alleles and risk of coronary disease. A meta-analysis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1996; 16: 1250-5.
135. Humphries SE, Talmud PJ, Hawe E, Bolla M, Day IN, Miller GJ. Apolipoprotein E4 and coronary heart disease in middle-aged men who smoke: a prospective study. Lancet 2001; 358: 115-9.
136. Kessler C, Spitzer C, Stauske D, et al. The apolipoprotein E and beta-fibrinogen G/A-455 gene polymorphisms are associated with ischemic stroke involving large-vessel disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17: 2880-4.
137. Palinski W, Ord VA, Plump AS, Breslow JL, Steinberg D, Witztum JL. ApoE-deficient mice are a model of lipoprotein oxida-tion in atherogenesis. Demonstration of oxidation-specific epitopes in lesions and high titers of autoantibodies to malondialdehyde-lysine in serum. Arterioscler Thromb 1994; 14: 605-16.
138. Saxena U, Goldberg IJ. Endothelial cells and atherosclerosis: lipoprotein metabolism, matrix interactions, and monocyte recruitment. Curr Opin Lipidol 1994; 5: 316-22.