Mold and human health: Separating the wheat from the chaff

Clinical Reviews in Allergy and Immunology

Volumn 38, Issue 2-3, 2010, Pages 148-155

  Pettigrew, H David ^a   Selmi, Carlo F ^a,b   Teuber, Suzanne S ^a   Gershwin, M Eric ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

Author keywords

Fungi kingdom; Human diseases; Mold

Indexed keywords

AFLATOXIN; ANTIFUNGAL AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; ERGOT ALKALOID; FUMONISIN; ITRACONAZOLE; MYCOTOXIN; OCHRATOXIN; PLACEBO; T 2 TOXIN; TRICHOTHECENE; VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND;

ALLERGIC ASTHMA; ALLERGIC BRONCHOPULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS; ALLERGIC PNEUMONITIS; ALLERGIC RHINITIS; ATOPIC DERMATITIS; AUTOIMMUNITY; CARCINOGENICITY; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG EFFICACY; ENDOSCOPIC SURGERY; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FUNGAL SINUSITIS; HUMAN; LAW SUIT; LUNG HEMORRHAGE; MOULD; MYCOSIS; MYCOTOXICOSIS; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; NOSE SURGERY; REVIEW; SICK BUILDING SYNDROME; STACHYBOTRYS; TERATOGENICITY; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY;

FUNGI; HUMANS; HYPERSENSITIVITY; MYCOSES;

EID: 77953322688     PISSN: 10800549     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12016-009-8175-5     Document Type: Review

References (87)

1. Richard JL (2007) Some major mycotoxins and their mycotoxicoses - an overview. Int J Food Microbiol 119:3-10
2. Boermans HJ, Leung MC (2007) Mycotoxins and the pet food industry: toxicological evidence and risk assessment. Int J Food Microbiol 119:95-102
3. Stenske KA, Smith JR, Newman SJ, Newman LB, Kirk CA (2006) Aflatoxicosis in dogs and dealing with suspected contaminated commercial foods. J Am Vet Med Assoc 228:1686-1691
4. Henghold WB 2nd (2004) Other biologic toxin bioweapons: ricin, staphylococcal enterotoxin B, and trichothecene mycotoxins. Dermatol Clin 22:257-262 v
5. Roponen M, Seuri M, Nevalainen A, Hirvonen MR (2002) Fungal spores as such do not cause nasal inflammation in mold exposure. Inhal Toxicol 14:541-549
6. Schleibinger H, Laussmann D, Bornehag CG, Eis D, Rueden H (2008) Microbial volatile organic compounds in the air of moldy and mold-free indoor environments. Indoor Air 18:113-124
7. Hamill R (2001) Infectious Diseases: Mycotic. In: Tierney L, McPhee S, Papadakis M (eds) Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment 2001. Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 1481-1493
8. Bush RK, Portnoy JM, Saxon A, Terr AI, Wood RA (2006) The medical effects of mold exposure. J Allergy Clin Immunol 117:326-333
9. Agarwal R (2009) Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Chest 135:805-826
10. Greenberger PA (2002) Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 110:685-692
11. Greenberger PA, Patterson R (1988) Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis and the evaluation of the patient with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 81:646-650
12. Seltzer JM, Fedoruk MJ (2007) Health effects of mold in children. Pediatr Clin North Am 54:309-333 viii-ix
13. Rosenberg M, Patterson R, Mintzer R, Cooper BJ, Roberts M, Harris KE (1977) Clinical and immunologic criteria for the diagnosis of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Ann Intern Med 86:405-414
14. Luong A, Marple B (2005) The role of fungi in chronic rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 38:1203-1213
15. Luong A, Marple BF (2004) Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 4:465-470
16. Ryan MW, Marple BF (2007) Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis: diagnosis and management. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 15:18-22
17. Manning SC, Holman M (1998) Further evidence for allergic pathophysiology in allergic fungal sinusitis. Laryngoscope 108:1485-1496
18. Bent JP 3rd, Kuhn FA (1994) Diagnosis of allergic fungal sinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 111:580-588
19. Ebbens FA, Fokkens WJ (2008) The mold conundrum in chronic rhinosinusitis: where do we stand today? Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 8:93-101
20. Ebbens FA, Georgalas C, Fokkens WJ (2009) Fungus as the cause of chronic rhinosinusitis: the case remains unproven. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 17:43-49
21. Ebbens FA, Scadding GK, Badia L, Hellings PW, Jorissen M, Mullol J, Cardesin A, Bachert C, van Zele TP, Dijkgraaf MG, Lund V, Fokkens WJ (2006) Amphotericin B nasal lavages: not a solution for patients with chronic rhinosinusitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 118:1149-1156
22. Kennedy DW, Kuhn FA, Hamilos DL, Zinreich SJ, Butler D, Warsi G, Pfister PJ, Tavakkol A (2005) Treatment of chronic rhinosinusitis with high-dose oral terbinafine: a double blind, placebo-controlled study. Laryngoscope 115:1793-1799
23. Weschta M, Rimek D, Formanek M, Polzehl D, Podbielski A, Riechelmann H (2004) Topical antifungal treatment of chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol 113:1122-1128
24. Girard M, Lacasse Y, Cormier Y (2009) Hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Allergy 64:322-334
25. Kurup VP, Zacharisen MC, Fink JN (2006) Hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci 48:115-128
26. Baur X (1995) Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (extrinsic allergic alveolitis) induced by isocyanates. J Allergy Clin Immunol 95:1004-1010
27. Yoshizawa Y, Ohtsuka M, Noguchi K, Uchida Y, Suko M, Hasegawa S (1989) Hypersensitivity pneumonitis induced by toluene diisocyanate: sequelae of continuous exposure. Ann Intern Med 110:31-34
28. Harrison LC, Honeyman MC, Morahan G, Wentworth JM, Elkassaby S, Colman PG, Fourlanos S (2008) Type 1 diabetes: lessons for other autoimmune diseases? J Autoimmun 31:306-310
29. Rieger R, Gershwin ME (2007) The X and why of xenobiotics in primary biliary cirrhosis. J Autoimmun 28:76-84
30. Richerson HB, Bernstein IL, Fink JN, Hunninghake GW, Novey HS, Reed CE, Salvaggio JE, Schuyler MR, Schwartz HJ, Schwartz HJ, Stechschulte DJ (1989) Guidelines for the clinical evaluation of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Report of the Subcommittee on Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 84:839-844
31. Monkare S, Haahtela T (1987) Farmer's lung - a 5-year follow-up of eighty-six patients. Clin Allergy 17:143-151
32. Delfino RJ, Zeiger RS, Seltzer JM, Street DH, Matteucci RM, Anderson PR, Koutrakis P (1997) The effect of outdoor fungal spore concentrations on daily asthma severity. Environ Health Perspect 105:622-635 (Pubitemid 27405811)
33. Black PN, Udy AA, Brodie SM (2000) Sensitivity to fungal allergens is a risk factor for life-threatening asthma. Allergy 55:501-504
34. Bush RK, Prochnau JJ (2004) Alternaria-induced asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 113:227-234
35. O'Driscoll BR, Hopkinson LC, Denning DW (2005) Mold sensitization is common amongst patients with severe asthma requiring multiple hospital admissions. BMC Pulm Med 5:4
36. Pulimood TB, Corden JM, Bryden C, Sharples L, Nasser SM (2007) Epidemic asthma and the role of the fungal mold Alternaria alternata. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120:610-617
37. Denning DW, O'Driscoll BR, Hogaboam CM, Bowyer P, Niven RM (2006) The link between fungi and severe asthma: a summary of the evidence. Eur Respir J 27:615-626
38. Neukirch C, Henry C, Leynaert B, Liard R, Bousquet J, Neukirch F (1999) Is sensitization to Alternaria alternata a risk factor for severe asthma? A population-based study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 103:709-711
39. Niedoszytko M, Chelminska M, Jassem E, Czestochowska E (2007) Association between sensitization to Aureobasidium pullulans (Pullularia sp) and severity of asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 98:153-156
40. Simon-Nobbe B, Denk U, Poll V, Rid R, Breitenbach M (2008) The spectrum of fungal allergy. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 145:58-86
41. Dales RE, Cakmak S, Judek S, Dann T, Coates F, Brook JR, Burnett RT (2003) The role of fungal spores in thunderstorm asthma. Chest 123:745-750
42. Belanger K, Beckett W, Triche E, Bracken MB, Holford T, Ren P, McSharry JE, Gold DR, Platts-Mills TA, Leaderer BP (2003) Symptoms of wheeze and persistent cough in the first year of life: associations with indoor allergens, air contaminants, and maternal history of asthma. Am J Epidemiol 158:195-202
43. Gent JF, Ren P, Belanger K, Triche E, Bracken MB, Holford TR, Leaderer BP (2002) Levels of household mold associated with respiratory symptoms in the first year of life in a cohort at risk for asthma. Environ Health Perspect 110A781-786
44. Andersson M, Downs S, Mitakakis T, Leuppi J, Marks G (2003) Natural exposure to Alternaria spores induces allergic rhinitis symptoms in sensitized children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 14:100-105
45. Gergen PJ, Turkeltaub PC (1992) The association of individual allergen reactivity with respiratory disease in a national sample: data from the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1976-80 (NHANES II). J Allergy Clin Immunol 90:579-588
46. Helbling A, Gayer F, Pichler WJ, Brander KA (1998) Mushroom (Basidiomycete) allergy: diagnosis established by skin test and nasal challenge. J Allergy Clin Immunol 102:853-858
47. Rowe MS, Bailey J, Ownby DR (1986) Evaluation of the cause of nasal and ocular symptoms associated with lawn mowing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 77:714-719
48. Katz Y, Verleger H, Barr J, Rachmiel M, Kiviti S, Kuttin ES (1999) Indoor survey of moulds and prevalence of mould atopy in Israel. Clin Exp Allergy 29:186-192
49. Lander F, Meyer HW, Norn S (2001) Serum IgE specific to indoor moulds, measured by basophil histamine release, is associated with building-related symptoms in damp buildings. Inflamm Res 50:227-231
50. Montealegre F, Meyer B, Chardon D, Vargas W, Zavala D, Hart B, Bayona M (2004) Comparative prevalence of sensitization to common animal, plant and mould allergens in subjects with asthma, or atopic dermatitis and/or allergic rhinitis living in a tropical environment. Clin Exp Allergy 34:51-58
51. Reijula K, Leino M, Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Nikulin M, Alenius H, Mikkola J, Elg P, Kari O, Makinen-Kiljunen S, Haahtela T (2003) IgE-mediated allergy to fungal allergens in Finland with special reference to Alternaria alternata and Cladosporium herbarum. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 91:280-287
52. Scalabrin DM, Bavbek S, Perzanowski MS, Wilson BB, Platts-Mills TA, Wheatley LM (1999) Use of specific IgE in assessing the relevance of fungal and dust mite allergens to atopic dermatitis: a comparison with asthmatic and nonasthmatic control subjects. J Allergy Clin Immunol 104:1273-1279
53. Boguniewicz M, Schmid-Grendelmeier P, Leung DY (2006) Atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 118:40-43
54. Leung DY (2000) Atopic dermatitis: new insights and opportunities for therapeutic intervention. J Allergy Clin Immunol 105:860-876
55. Casagrande BF, Fluckiger S, Linder MT, Johansson C, Scheynius A, Crameri R, Schmid-Grendelmeier P (2006) Sensitization to the yeast Malassezia sympodialis is specific for extrinsic and intrinsic atopic eczema. J Invest Dermatol 126:2414-2421
56. Johansson C, Sandstrom MH, Bartosik J, Sarnhult T, Christiansen J, Zargari A, Back O, Wahlgren CF, Faergemann J, Scheynius A, Tengvall Linder M (2003) Atopy patch test reactions to Malassezia allergens differentiate subgroups of atopic dermatitis patients. Br J Dermatol 148:479-488
57. Zargari A, Eshaghi H, Back O, Johansson S, Scheynius A (2001) Serum IgE reactivity to Malassezia furfur extract and recombinant M. furfur allergens in patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 81:418-422
58. Elagin RB, Balijepalli S, Diacovo MJ, Baekkeskov S, Jaume JC (2009) Homing of GAD65 specific autoimmunity and development of insulitis requires expression of both DQ8 and human GAD65 in transgenic mice. J Autoimmun 33:50-57
59. Gebe JA, Unrath KA, Yue BB, Miyake T, Falk BA, Nepom GT (2008) Autoreactive human T-cell receptor initiates insulitis and impaired glucose tolerance in HLA DR4 transgenic mice. J Autoimmun 30:197-206
60. Hogan TV, Ang DK, Gleeson PA, van Driel IR (2008) Extrathymic mechanisms of T cell tolerance: lessons from autoimmune gastritis. J Autoimmun 31:268-273
61. Jordan MA, Baxter AG (2008) The genetics of immunoregulatory T cells. J Autoimmun 31:237-244
62. Maverakis E, Beech JT, Schneider S, Sercarz EE (2008) Presentation of a determinant by MHC class II can be prevented through competitive capture by a flanking determinant on a multideterminant peptide. J Autoimmun 31:59-65
63. Morahan G, Peeva V, Mehta M, Williams R (2008) Systems genetics can provide new insights in to immune regulation and autoimmunity. J Autoimmun 31:233-236
64. Pai S, Thomas R (2008) Immune deficiency or hyperactivity-Nf-kappab illuminates autoimmunity. J Autoimmun 31:245-251
65. Papadimitraki ED, Bertsias GK, Boumpas DT (2007) Toll like receptors and autoimmunity: a critical appraisal. J Autoimmun 29:310-318
66. Poletaev AB, Stepanyuk VL, Gershwin ME (2008) Integrating immunity: the immunculus and self-reactivity. J Autoimmun 30:68-73
67. Sanchez-Pernaute O, Ospelt C, Neidhart M, Gay S (2008) Epigenetic clues to rheumatoid arthritis. J Autoimmun 30:12-20
68. Youinou P, Jamin C (2009) The weight of interleukin-6 in B cell-related autoimmune disorders. J Autoimmun 32:206-210
69. Chang C, Gershwin ME (2005) Mold hysteria: origin of the hoax. Clin Dev Immunol 12:151-158
70. Terr AI (2009) Sick building syndrome: is mould the cause? Med Mycol 47(Suppl 1):S217-222
71. Tsai YJ, Gershwin ME (2002) The sick building syndrome: what is it when it is? Compr Ther 28:140-144
72. Redlich CA, Sparer J, Cullen MR (1997) Sick-building syndrome. Lancet 349:1013-1016
73. Terr AI (2001) Stachybotrys: relevance to human disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 87:57-63
74. Fatal fungus. (1998), Environ Health Perspect 106, A11-12.
75. Pestka JJ, Yike I, Dearborn DG, Ward MD, Harkema JR (2008) Stachybotrys chartarum, trichothecene mycotoxins, and damp building-related illness: new insights into a public health enigma. Toxicol Sci 104:4-26
76. Johanning E, Biagini R, Hull D, Morey P, Jarvis B, Landsbergis P (1996) Health and immunology study following exposure to toxigenic fungi (Stachybotrys chartarum) in a water-damaged office environment. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 68:207-218
77. Hodgson MJ, Morey P, Leung WY, Morrow L, Miller D, Jarvis BB, Robbins H, Halsey JF, Storey E (1998) Building-associated pulmonary disease from exposure to Stachybotrys chartarum and Aspergillus versicolor. J Occup Environ Med 40:241-249
78. Nordness ME, Zacharisen MC, Fink JN (2003) Toxic and other non-IgE-mediated effects of fungal exposures. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 3:438-446
79. Edmondson DA, Nordness ME, Zacharisen MC, Kurup VP, Fink JN (2005) Allergy and "toxic mold syndrome". Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 94:234-239
80. Borchers AT, Chang C, Keen CL, Gershwin ME (2006) Airborne environmental injuries and human health. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 31:1-101
81. Acute pulmonary hemorrhage/hemosiderosis among infants - Cleveland, January 1993-November 1994. (1994), MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 43, 881-883
82. Update: pulmonary hemorrhage/hemosiderosis among infants - Cleveland, Ohio, 1993-1996. (1997), MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 46, 33-35
83. Etzel RA, Montana E, Sorenson WG, Kullman GJ, Allan TM, Dearborn DG, Olson DR, Jarvis BB, Mller JD (1998) Acute pulmonary hemorrhage in infants associated with exposure to Stachybotrys atra and other fungi. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 152:757-762
84. Dearborn DG, Yike I, Sorenson WG, Miller MJ, Etzel RA (1999) Overview of investigations into pulmonary hemorrhage among infants in Cleveland, Ohio. Environ Health Perspect 107(Suppl 3):495-499
85. From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: pulmonary hemorrhage/hemosiderosis among infants - Cleveland, Ohio, 1993-1996. (2000), JAMA 283, 1951-1953
86. Chapman JA, Terr AI, Jacobs RL, Charlesworth EN, Bardana EJ Jr (2003) Toxic mold: phantom risk vs science. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 91:222-232
87. Babcock DW (2006) The legal implications of "toxic" mold exposure. J Environ Health 68:50-51