Mediterranean jellyfish venoms: A review on scyphomedusae

Marine Drugs

Volumn 8, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 1122-1152

  Mariottini, Gian Luigi ^a   Pane, Luigi ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GENOA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Jellyfish; Mediterranean Sea; Scyphomedusae; Venom

Indexed keywords

AURELIN; EQUINATOXIN; JELLYFISH VENOM; PALYTOXIN; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2; POLYPEPTIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; PROSTANOID; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VENOM;

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; BIOCHEMISTRY; BITES AND STINGS; CYTOTOXICITY; ENVENOMATION; HUMAN; MEDITERRANEAN SEA; MEDUSA; NONHUMAN; POISONOUS JELLYFISH; REVIEW; SCYPHOZOA; TOXIN ANALYSIS;

ACTINIARIA; CNIDARIA; CUBOMEDUSAE; SCYPHOMEDUSAE; SCYPHOZOA;

EID: 77952555658     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16603397     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/md8041122     Document Type: Review

References (196)

1. Kem, W.R.; Turk, T. Editorial. Preface. Toxicon 2009, 54, 1029.
2. Fautin, D.G. Structural diversity, systematics, and evolution of cnidae. Toxicon 2009, 54, 1054-1064.
3. Avian, M. Scyphozoa. In Checklist della flora e della fauna dei mari italiani (Parte I); Relini, G., Ed.; Ministero dell'Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare. Direzione Generale per la Protezione della Natura: Roma, Italy, 2008; Volume 15, pp. 67-69.
4. Riedl, R. Fauna e flora del Mediterraneo; F. Muzzio: Padova, Italy, 1991; pp. 1-777.
5. Tregouboff, G., Rose, M. Manuel de planctonologie Mé diterranéenne; CNRS: Paris, France, 1957; Tome I-II.
6. Axiak, V.; Civili, F.S. Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean: causes, mechanisms, impact on man and the environment. A programme review. In UNEP: Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP, Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 1-21.
7. Franc A. Classe des Scyphozoaires. In Traité de Zoologie, Anatomie, Systématique, Biologie. Publié sous la direction de Pierre-P. Grassé. III Cnidaires, Cténaires 2. Doumenc, D., Ed.; Masson: Paris, France, 1993; pp. 597-884.
8. Mariscal, R.N. Nematocysts. In Coelenterate Biology; Muscatine, L., Lenhoff, H.M., Eds.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1974; pp. 129-178.
9. UNEP. Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, Greece, 31 October-4 November 1983, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1984.
10. UNEP. Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. In Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Technical Reports Series, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991.
11. Mills, C.E. Jellyfish blooms: are populations increasing globally in response to changing ocean conditions? Hydrobiologia 2001, 451, 55-68.
12. UNEP/IAEA Sampling and identification of common Mediterranean Scyphomedusae and evaluation of their occurrence. In Reference Methods for Marine Pollution Studies No.51 (draft); UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1988; pp. 1-27.
13. Newman, D.J.; Cragg, G.M. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the last 25 years. J. Nat. Prod. 2007, 70, 461-477.
14. Proksch, P.; Edrada-Ebel, R.A.; Ebel, R. Drugs from the sea-opportunities and obstacles. Mar. Drugs 2003, 1, 5-17.
15. Jimeno, J.; Faircloth, G.; Fernández Sousa-Faro, J.M.; Scheure, P.; Rinehart, K. New marine derived anticancer therapeutics-a journey from the sea to clinical trials. Mar. Drugs 2003, 2, 14-29.
16. Mayer, A.M.S.; Lehmann, V.B.K. Marine pharmacology in 1999: Antitumor and cytotoxic compounds. Anticancer Res. 2001, 21, 2489-2500.
17. Mayer, A.M.S.; Hamann, M.T. Marine pharmacology in 1999: compounds with antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet, antimalarial, antiprotozoal and antiviral activities affecting the cardiovascular, endocrine, immune and nervous systems, and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action. Comp. Biochem. Physiol C 2002, 132, 315-339.
18. Mayer, A.M.S.; Rodríguez, A.D.; Berlinck, R.G.S.; Hamann, M.T. Marine pharmacology in 2005-6: Marine compounds with anthelmintic, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-malarial, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities; affecting the cardiovascular, immune and nervous systems, and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2009, 1790, 283-308.
19. Cragg, G.M.; Newman, D.J. Discovery and development of antineoplastic agents from natural sources. Cancer Invest. 1999, 17, 153-163.
20. Nuijen, B.; Bouma, M.; Manada, C.; Jimeno, J.M.; Schellens, J.H.M.; Bult, A.; Beijnen, J.H. Pharmaceutical development of anticancer agents derived from marine sources. Anti-Cancer Drugs 2000, 11, 793-811.
21. Newman, D.J.; Cragg, G.M. Marine natural products and related compounds in clinical and advanced preclinical trials. J. Nat. Prod. 2004, 67, 1216-1238.
22. Newman, D.J.; Cragg, G.M. Advanced preclinical and clinical trials of natural products and related compounds from marine sources. Curr. Med. Chem. 2004, 11, 1693-1713.
23. Weinheimer, A.J.; Spraggins, R.L. The occurrence of two new prostaglandin derivatives (15-epi-PGA2 and its acetate, methyl ester) in the Gorgonian Plaxaura homomalla. Chemistry of Coelenterates. XV. Tetrahedron Lett. 1969, 10, 5185-5188.
24. Moore, R.E.; Scheuer, P.J. Palytoxin: a new marine toxin from a Coelenterate. Science 1971, 172, 495-498.
25. Kohl, A.C.; Kerr, R.G. Pseudopterosin biosynthesis: Aromatization of the diterpene cyclase product, Elisabethatriene. Mar. Drugs 2003, 1, 54-65.
26. Honda, A.; Yamamoto, Y.; Mori, Y.; Yamada, Y.; Kikuchi, H. Antileukemic effect of coral-prostanoids clavulones from the stolonifer Clavularia viridis on human myeloid leukemia (HL-60) cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1985, 130, 515-523.
27. Orduña-Novoa, K.; Segura-Puertas, L.; Sánchez- Rodríguez, J.; Meléndez, A.; Nava-Ruíz, C.; Rembao, D.; Santamaría, A.; Galván-Arzate, S. Possible antitumoral effect of the crude venom of Cassiopea xamachana (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) on tumors of the central nervous system induced by N-Ethyl-N-Nitrosourea (ENU) in rats. Proc. West. Pharmacol. Soc. 2003, 46, 85-87.
28. Tabrah, F.L.; Kashiwagi, M.; Norton, T.R. Antitumor activity in mice of four coelenterate extracts. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1972, 5, 420-422.
29. Giraldi, T.; Ferlan, I.; Romeo, D. Antitumour activity of equinatoxin. Chem.-Biol. Interact. 1976, 13, 199-203.
30. Rouzaire-Dubois, B.; Dubois, J. Characterization of palytoxin-induced channels in mouse neuroblastoma cells. Toxicon 1990, 28, 1147-1158. (Pubitemid 20337337)
31. Watson, G.M.; Wood, R.L. Colloquium on terminology. In The Biology of Nematocysts; Hessinger, D.A., Lenhoff, H.M., Eds.; Academic Press Inc.: San Diego, CA, USA, 1988; pp. 21-23 (in Fautin, 2009).
32. David, C.N.; Özbek, S.; Adamczyk, P.; Meier, S.; Pauly, B.; Chapman, J.; Hwang, J.S.; Gojobori, T.; Holstein, T.W. Evolution of complex structures: minicollagens shape the cnidarian nematocyst. Trends Genet. 2008, 24, 431-438.
33. Östman, C. A guideline to nematocyst nomenclature and classification, and some notes on the systematic value of nematocysts. Trends in hydrozoan biology-IV. Sci. Mar. 2000, 64 (Suppl. 1), 31-46.
34. Ozacmak, V.H.; Thorington, G.U.; Fletcher, W.H.; Hessinger, D.A. N-acetylneuraminic acid (nana) stimulates in situ cyclic AMP production in tentacles of sea anemone (Aiptasia pallida): possible role in chemosensitization of nematocyst discharge. J. Exp. Biol. 2001, 204, 2011-2020.
35. Thurm, U.; Brinkmann, M.; Golz, R.; Holtmann, M.; Oliver, D.; Sieger, T. Mechanoreception and synaptic transmission of hydrozoan nematocytes. Hydrobiologia 2004, 530/531, 97-105.
36. Birsa, L.M.; Verity, P.G.; Lee, R.F. Evaluation of the effects of various chemicals on discharge of and pain caused by jellyfish nematocysts. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C 2010, in press.
37. Watson, G.M.; Mire-Thibodeaux, P. The cell biology of nematocysts. Int. Rev. Cytol. 1994, 156, 275-300.
38. Weill, R. Contribution à l'étude des cnidaires et de leurs nématocystes. Trav. Sta. Zool. Wimereux 1934, 10, 1-701.
39. Cannon, Q.; Wagner, E. Comparison of discharge mechanisms of cnidarian cnidae and myxozoan polar capsules. Rev. Fish. Sci. 2003, 11, 185-219.
40. Malej, A. Unusual occurrence of Pelagia noctiluca in the Adriatic Sea. Acta Adriat. 1982, 23, 97-102.
41. Zavodnik, D. Spatial aggregations of the swarming jellyfish Pelagia noctiluca (Scyphozoa). Mar. Biol. 1987, 94, 265-269.
42. Martinussen, M.B.; Båmstedt, U. Nutritional ecology of gelatinous planktonic predators. Digestion rate in relation to type and amount of prey. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1999, 232, 61-84.
43. Båmstedt, U.; Martinussen, M.B. Estimating digestion rate and the problem of individual variability, exemplified by a scyphozoan jellyfish. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2000, 251, 1-15.
44. Thompson, T.E., Bennett, I. Physalia nematocysts: Utilized by mollusks for defense. Science 1969, 166, 1532-1533.
45. Östman, C. Abundance, feeding behaviour and nematocysts of scyphopolyps (Cnidaria) and nematocysts in their predator, the nudibranch Coryphella verrucosa (Mollusca). Hydrobiologia 1997, 355, 21-28.
46. Arai, M.N. Predation on pelagic coelenterates: a review. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 2005, 85, 523-536.
47. Greenwood, P.G. Acquisition and use of nematocysts by cnidarian predators. Toxicon 2009, 54, 1065-1070.
48. Jones, E.C. Tremoctopus violaceus uses Physalia tentacles as weapons. Science 1963, 139, 764-766.
49. Karling, T.G. On nematocysts and similar structures in turbellarians. Acta Zool. Fenn. 1966, 116, 1-21.
50. Chung, J.J.; Ratnapala, L.A.; Cooke, I.M.; Yanagihara, A.A. Partial purification and characterization of a hemolysin (CAH1) from Hawaiian box jellyfish (Carybdea alata) venom. Toxicon 2001, 39, 981-990.
51. Yoshimoto, C.M.; Yanagihara, A.A. Cnidarian (coelenterate) envenomations in Hawai'i improve following heat application. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hygiene 2002, 96, 300-303.
52. Feng, J.; Yu, H.; Li, C.; Xing, R.; Liu, S.; Wang, L.; Cai, S.; Li, P. Isolation and characterization of lethal proteins in nematocyst venom of the jellyfish Cyanea nozakii Kishinouye. Toxicon 2010, 55, 118-125.
53. Endean, R. The box jellyfish or "sea wasp". In Animal Toxins in Man; Pearn, J., Ed., The Division of Health Education and Information: Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, 1981; pp. 46-54.
54. Burnett, J.W. Jellyfish envenomation syndromes worldwide. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 227-235.
55. Burnett, J.W. Medical aspects of jellyfish envenomation: pathogenesis, case reporting and therapy. Hydrobiologia 2001, 451, 1-9.
56. Burnett, J.W. Treatment of Atlantic cnidarian envenomations. Toxicon 2009, 54, 1201-1205.
57. Fenner, P.J.; Harrison, S.L. Irukandji and Chironex fleckeri envenomation in tropical Australia. Wild. Environ. Med. 2000, 11, 233-240.
58. Brinkman, D.L.; Burnell, J.N. Biochemical and molecular characterisation of cubozoan protein toxins. Toxicon 2009, 54, 1162-1173.
59. Theoharides, T.C. Mast cell secretion: basis for jellyfish poisoning and prospects for relief. In Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, Greece, 31 October-4 November 1983; pp. 63-73.
60. Harrison, T.R. Principles of Internal Medicine, 9th ed.; Isselbacher, K.I., Adams, R.D., Braunwald, E., Petersdorf, R.G., Wilson, J.D., Eds.; McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd.: Tokyo, Japan, 1980; pp. 921-928.
61. Turk, T.; Kem, W.R. The phylum Cnidaria and investigations of its toxins and venoms until 1990. Toxicon 2009, 54, 1031-1037.
62. Radwan, F.F.Y.; Burnett, J.W.; Bloom, D.A.; Coliano, T.; Eldefrawi, M.E.; Erderly, H.; Aurelian, L.; Torres, M.; Heimer-de la Cotera, E.P. A comparison of the toxinological characteristics of two Cassiopea and Aurelia species. Toxicon 2001, 39, 245-257.
63. Burnett, J.W.; Calton, G.J.; Larsen, J.B. Significant envenomation by Aurelia aurita, the moon jellyfish. Toxicon 1988, 26, 215-217.
64. Benmeir, P.; Rosenberg, L.; Sagi, A.; Vardi, D.; Eldad, A. Jellyfish envenomation: a summer epidemic. Burns 1990, 16, 471-472.
65. Vaissiere, R. Sur quelques travaux relatifs aux méduses acalèphes de Méditerranée. In Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, Greece, 31 October-4 November 1983; UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1984; pp. 149-161.
66. Kideys, A.E.; Kovalev, A.V.; Shulman, G.; Gordina, A.; Bingel, F. A review of zooplankton investigations of the Black Sea over the last decade. J. Mar. Syst. 2000, 24, 355-371.
67. Calder, D.R. Nematocysts of polyps of Aurelia, Chrysaora and Cyanea, and their utility in identification. T. Am. Microsc. Soc. 1971, 90, 269-274.
68. Heitstuman, T.M. Aspects of the Biology and Culture of Scyphomedusae of the Oregon Coast. Master Thesis. Oregon State University: Corvallis, OR, USA, 1994.
69. Scalera-Liaci, L. Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. First results. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 163-166.
70. Zavodnik, D. Occurrences of Pelagia noctiluca (Scyphozoa) in North Adriatic coastal areas. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 202-211.
71. Issel, R. Nuove indagini sul plancton delle acque di Rovigno (1 ottobre 1920-31 dicembre 1921). R. Comitato Talassografico Italiano 1922, 102, 1-37.
72. Del Negro, P.; Kokelj, F.; Tubaro, A.; Della Loggia, R. Chrysaora hysoscella in the Gulf of Trieste: presence, evolution and cutaneous toxicity in man. Marine Coastal Eutrophication. Sci. Total Environ. 1992, Suppl., 427-430.
73. Carli, A. Macroplanktonic jellyfish in the Ligurian Sea (1984-1986), Monitoring and biological characteristics. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP, Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 77-81.
74. Bingel, F.; Avşar, D.; Gucu, A.C. Occurrence of jellyfish in Mersin Bay. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 65-71.
75. Del Negro, P.; Kokelj, F.; Avian, M.; Rottini-Sandrini, L.; Rottini, G.D. Toxic property of the jellyfish Chrysaora hysoscella: preliminary report. Rev. Int. Océanogr. Méd. 1991, 101-104, 168-171.
76. Avian, M.; Del Negro, P.; Rottini Sandrini, L. A comparative analysis of nematocysts in Pelagia noctiluca and Rhizostoma pulmo from the North Adriatic Sea. Hydrobiologia 1991, 216-217, 615-621.
77. Malej, A.; Vukovic, A. Some data on the occurrence and biology of the Scyphomedusa Pelagia noctiluca in the Gulf of Trieste, and the impact of jellyfish swarming on human activities. In Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, Greece, 31 October-4 November 1983; UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1984; pp. 89-94.
78. Kovalev, A.V.; Piontkovski, S.A. Interannual changes in the biomass of the Black Sea gelatinous zooplankton. J. Plankton Res. 1998, 20, 1377-1385.
79. Galil, B.S.; Spanier, E.; Ferguson, W.W. The Scyphomedusae of the Mediterranean coast of Israel, including two Lessepsian migrants new to Mediterranean. Zool. Meded. 1990, 64, 95-105.
80. Axiak, V.; Galea, C.; Schembri, P.J. Coastal aggregations of the jellyfish Pelagia noctiluca (Scyphozoa) in Maltese coastal waters during 1980-1986. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 32-40.
81. Pérez-Ruzafa, A., Gilabert, J., Gutiérrez, J.M., Fernández, A.I., Marcos, C., Sabah, S. Evidence of a planktonic food web response to changes in nutrient input dynamics in the Mar Menor coastal lagoon, Spain. Hydrobiologia 2002, 475-476, 359-369.
82. Martinez, J.; Esteve, M.A.; Pardo, M.T.; Carreño, M.F. A dynamic model on the nutrient fluxes into the Mar Menor lagoon (SE Spain) and the impacts of current agricultural and land use trends. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Southern European Coastal Lagoons: The Influence of River Basin-Coastal Zone interactions, Ferrara, Italy, 10-12th November 2003; Murray, C.N., Zaldívar, J.M., Giordani, G., Viaroli, P., Eds.; European Commission Joint Research Centre, Special Publication No.I.03.136, 2003; Volume 81.
83. García-Pintado, J.; Martínez-Mena, M.; Barberá, G.G.; Albaladejo, J.; Castillo, V.M. Anthropogenic nutrient sources and loads from a Mediterranean catchment into a coastal lagoon: Mar Menor, Spain. Sci. Tot. Environ. 2007, 373, 220-239. (Pubitemid 46111009)
84. Velasco, J.; Lloret, L.; Millán, A.; Barahona, J.; Abellán, P.; Sánchez-Fernández, D. Nutrient and particulate inputs into the Mar Menor lagoon (SE Spain) from an intensive agricultural watershed. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2006, 176, 37-56.
85. Conesa, H.M.; Jiménez-Cárceles, F.J. The Mar Menor lagoon (SE Spain): A singular natural ecosystem threatened by human activities. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2007, 54, 839-849.
86. Lakkis, S. Aggregations of the Scyphomedusa Rhizostoma pulmo in the Lebanese coastal waters during the summer of 1986. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 119-127.
87. Daly Yahia, M.N.; Goy, J.; Daly Yahia-Kéfi, O. Distribution et écologie des Méduses (Cnidaria) du golfe de Tunis (Méditerranée sud occidentale). Oceanol. Acta 2003, 26, 645-655.
88. Purcell, J.E.; Uye, S.; Lo, W.-T. Anthropogenic causes of jellyfish blooms and their direct consequences for humans: a review. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2007, 350, 153-174.
89. Galil, B.S. A sea under siege-alien species in the Mediterranean. Biol. Invasions 2000, 2, 177-186.
90. Çevik, C.; Toklu, B.; Sarihan, E. The impact of the Red Sea species (lessepsian) on the Mediterranean Sea. In Workshop on Lessepsian migration, Gokçeada, Turkey, 20-21 July 2002; pp. 83-86.
91. Boudouresque, C.F. Les espèces introduites et invasives en milieu marin. Troisième édition. GIS Posidonie publication: Marseilles, France, 2008; pp. 1-201.
92. Lotan, A.; Ben-Hillel, R.; Loya, Y. Life cycle of Rhopilema nomadica: a new immigrant scyphomedusan in the Mediterranean. Mar. Biol. 1992, 112, 237-242.
93. Spanier, E.; Galil, B.S. Lessepsian migration: a continuous biogeographical process. Endeavour 1991, 15, 102-106.
94. Graham, W.M.; Bayha, K.M. 14 biological invasions by marine jellyfish. In Ecological Studies, Biological Invasions; Nentwig, W., Ed.; Springer-Verlag: Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany, 2007; Volume 193, pp. 240-255.
95. Lotan, A.; Fine, M.; Ben-Hillel, R. Synchronization of the life cycle and dispersal pattern of the tropical invader scyphomedusan Rhopilema nomadica is temperature dependent. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1994, 109, 59-65.
96. Avşar, D. Physico-chemical characteristics of the eastern Mediterranean in relation to distribution of the new Scyphomedusae (Rhopilema nomadica) [Yeni bir skifomedüz (Rhopilema nomadica)' ün daǧilimi ile ilgili olarak doǧu akdeniz'in fiziko-kimyasal özellikleri]. Turk. J. Zool. 1999, 23, 605-616.
97. Avian, M.; Spanier, E.; Galil, B. Nematocysts of Rhopilema nomadica (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae), an immigrant jellyfish in the Eastern Mediterranean. J. Morphol. 1995, 224, 221-231.
98. Dowidar, N.M. Medusae of the Egyptian mediterranean waters. In UNEP: Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, Greece, 31 October-4 November 1983; UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1984; pp. 9-16.
99. Arai, M.N. Pelagic coelenterates and eutrophication: a review. Hydrobiologia 2001, 451, 69-87.
100. Möller, H. Effect of jellyfish predation on fishes. In UNEP: Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, Greece, 31 October-4 November 1983; UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1984; pp. 45-59.
101. Hansson, L.J. A method for in situ estimation of prey selectivity and predation rate in large plankton, exemplified with the jellyfish Aurelia aurita (L.). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2006, 328, 113-126.
102. Benović, A.; Lučić, D.; Onofri, V.; Peharda, M.; Carić, M.; Jasprica, N.; Bobanović-Ćolić, S. Ecological characteristics of the Mljet Island seawater lakes (South Adriatic Sea) with special reference to their resident populations of medusae. Sci. Mar. 2000, 64 (Suppl. 1), 197-206.
103. Lucas, C.H. Biochemical composition of Aurelia aurita in relation to age and sexual maturity. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1994, 183, 179-192.
104. Mastronicolis, S.K.; Miniadis, S.; Nakhel, I.; Smirniotopoulou, A. Biochemical and ecological research on jellyfish and other organisms in the Mediterranean Sea. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP, Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 268-282.
105. Kariotoglou, D.M.; Mastronicolis, S.K. Sphingophosphonolipids, phospholipids, and fatty acids from Aegean jellyfish Aurelia aurita. Lipids 2001, 36, 1255-1264.
106. Östman, C. Scanning electron microscopic observations on Scandinavian scyphozoans with special reference to their nematocysts. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 283-292.
107. Bernard, P. Recapitulation des résultats de la surveillance des proliférations de méduses sur les côtes mé diterranéennes françaises durant l'été 1987. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP, Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 51-57.
108. Yoffe, B.; Baruchin, A.M. Mediterranean jellyfish (Rhopilema nomadica) sting. Burns 2004, 30, 503-504.
109. Kokelj, F.; Stinco, G.; Del Negro, P. Dermotossicità da meduse del mare Adriatico. G. Ital. Dermatol. Venerol. 1990, 125, 575-577.
110. Bayazit, V. Cytotoxic effects of some animal and vegetable extracts and some chemicals on liver and colon carcinoma and myosarcoma. Saudi Med. J. 2004, 25, 156-163. (Pubitemid 38279349)
111. Kihara, H.; Anraku, M.; Ohno, M.; Hashimura, S. Tetrodotoxin-unaffected depolarization of frog muscles induced by the venom of jellyfish (genus Aurelia). Jpn. J. Physiol. 1988, 38, 839-849.
112. Nevalainen, T.J.; Peuravuori, H.J.; Quinn, R.J.; Llewellyn, L.E.; Benzie, J.A.H.; Fenner, P.J.; Winkel, K.D. Phospholipase A2 in cnidaria. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B 2004, 139, 731-735.
113. Sher, D.; Knebel, A.; Bsor, T.; Nesher, N.; Tal, T.; Morgenstern, D.; Cohen, E.; Fishman, Y.; Zlotkin, E. Toxic polypeptides of the hydra-a bioinformatic approach to cnidarian allomones. Toxicon 2005, 45, 865-879. (Pubitemid 40723611)
114. Helmholz, H.; Ruhnau, C.; Schütt, C.; Prange, A. Comparative study on the cell toxicity and enzymatic activity of two northern scyphozoan species Cyanea capillata (L.) and Cyanea lamarckii (Péron & Léslieur). Toxicon 2007, 50, 53-64.
115. Segura-Puertas, L.; Avila-Soria, G.; Sánchez-Rodríguez, J.; Ramos-Aguilar, M.E.; Burnett, J.W. Some toxinological aspects of Aurelia aurita (Linné) from the Mexican Caribbean. J. Venom. Anim. Toxins 2002, 8, 269-282.
116. Pagès, F. Past and present anthropogenic factors promoting the invasion, colonization and dominance by jellyfish of a Spanish coastal lagoon. Gelatinous Zooplankton Outbreaks: Theory and Practice, Naples, Italy, 29 August-1st September 2001. CIESM Workshop Ser. 2001, 14, 69-71.
117. Bayazit, V. Cytotoxic effects of some animal and vegetable extracts and some chemicals on adenohypophyse carcinoma, kidney adenocarcinoma and skin carcinoma cells. J. Med. Sci. 2004, 4, 1-10.
118. Bayazit, V.; Khan, K.M. Anticancerogen activities of biological and chemical agents on lung carcinoma, breast adenocarcinoma and leukemia in rabbits. J. Chem. Soc. Pakistan 2005, 27, 413-422.
119. Ovchinnikova, T.V.; Balandin, S.V.; Aleshina, G.M.; Tagaev, A.A.; Leonova, Y.F.; Krasnodembsky, E.D.; Men'shenin, A.V.; Kokryakov, V.N. Aurelin, a novel antimicrobial peptide from jellyfish Aurelia aurita with structural features of defensins and channel-blocking toxins. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 348, 514-523.
120. Sparks, C.; Buecher, E.; Brierley, A.S.; Axelsen, B.E.; Boyer, H.; Gibbons, M.J. Observations on the distribution and relative abundance of the scyphomedusan Chrysaora hysoscella (Linné, 1766) and the hydrozoan Aequorea aequorea (Forskål, 1775) in the northern Benguela ecosystem. Hydrobiologia 2001, 451, 275-286.
121. Parodi, A.; Bassi, A.M.; Catalano, M.; Giacco, E.; Mariottini, G.L.; Pane, L. Cytotoxic effect on human keratinocytes of crude extracts from planktonic Cnidaria. J. Biol. Res.-Boll. Soc. It. Biol. Sper. 2009, 82, 59-61.
122. Vine, P. Red Sea Safety: Guide to Dangerous Marine Animals; IMMEL Publishing: London, UK, 1986; pp. 1-144.
123. Kokelj, F.; Del Negro, P.; Tubaro, A. Dermossicità da Chrysaora hysoscella. G. Ital. Dermatol. Venereol. 1989, 124, 297-298.
124. Kokelj, F.; Lo Brutto, R.; Boccucci, N. Epidemiological study of human injuries following jellyfish stings in the Gulf of Trieste. Contact Dermatitis 1999, 41, 349-350. (Pubitemid 30018899)
125. Russell, F.S. The medusae of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1970; Vol.II.
126. Axiak, V. Effect of decreasing light intensity on the activity of the scyphomedusa Pelagia noctiluca (Forskal). In UNEP: Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, 31 October-4 November 1983, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1984; pp. 121-127.
127. Malej, A.; Malej, M. Population dynamics of the jellyfish Pelagia noctiluca (Forsskål, 1775). In Marine Eutrophication and Population Dynamics; Colombo, G., Ferrara, I., Eds.; Olsen & Olsen: Fredensborg, Denmark, 1992; pp. 215-219.
128. Malej, A., Malej, A., Jr. Invasion of the jellyfish Pelagia noctiluca in the northern Adriatic: a non-success story. In Aquatic Invasions in the Black, Caspian and Mediterranean Seas; Dumont, H., Shiganova, T., Niermann, U., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2004; Chapter 16, pp. 273-285.
129. Rottini-Sandrini, L.; Avian, M.; Franchi, N.; Troian, A.; Vio, E. Le derangement et le dommage que les floraisons de méduses causent a la pêche. In UNEP: Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, 31/10-4/11/1983, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1984; pp. 35-44.
130. Bernard, P.; Couasnon, F.; Soubiran, J.P.; Goujon, J.F. Surveillance estivale de la méduse Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) sur les côtes Méditerranéennes Françaises. Ann. Inst. Océanogr. 1988, 64, 115-125.
131. Mariottini, G.L.; Giacco, E.; Pane, L. The Mauve Stinger Pelagia noctiluca (Forsskål, 1775). Distribution, ecology, toxicity and epidemiology of stings. A review. Mar. Drugs 2008, 6, 496-513.
132. Scarpa, C.; Kokelj, F.; Del Negro, P.; Tubaro, A. Valutazione dell'effetto irritante sulla cute umana di una preparazione di nematocisti di Pelagia noctiluca. Ann. It. Derm. Clin. Sper. 1987, 41, 337-341.
133. Kokelj, F.; Burnett, J.W. Reazioni inusuali indotte dal contatto con la medusa Pelagia noctiluca. G. Ital.Dermatol. Venereol. 1988, 123, 501-503.
134. Kokelj, F.; Burnett, J.W. Treatment of a pigmented lesion induced by a Pelagia noctiluca sting. Cutis 1990, 46, 62-64.
135. Auerbach, P.S. Envenomations from jellyfish and related species. J. Emerg. Nurs. 1997, 23, 555-568.
136. Burnett, J.W.; Calton, G.J.; Burnett, H.W. Jellyfish envenomation syndromes. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 1986, 14, 100-106.
137. Burnett, J.W.; Cobbs, C.S.; Kelman, S.N.; Calton, G.J. Studies on the serologic response to jellyfish envenomation. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 1983, 9, 229-231.
138. Togias, A.G.; Burnett, J.W.; Kagey-Sobotka, A.; Lichtenstein L.M. Anaphylaxis after contact with a jellyfish. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1985, 75, 672-675.
139. Marchini, B.; De Nuccio, L.; Mazzei, M.; Mariottini, G.L. A fast centrifuge method for nematocysts isolation from Pelagia noctiluca Forskål (Scyphozoa). Riv. Biol.-Biol. Forum 2004, 97, 505-516.
140. Queruel, P.; Bernard, P.; Goy, J.; Dantzer, E. Envenimations par la méduse Pelagia noctiluca sur nos côtes méditerrané ennes. Presse Méd. 2000, 29, 188.
141. Månsson, T.; Randle, H.W.; Mandojana, R.M.; Calton, G.J.; Burnett, J.W. Recurrent cutaneous jellyfish eruptions without envenomation. Acta Derm. Venereol. (Stockholm.) 1985, 65, 72-75.
142. Russo, A.J.; Calton, G.J.; Burnett, J.W. The relationship of the possible allergic response to jellyfish envenomation and serum antibody titers. Toxicon 1983, 21, 475-480.
143. Maretic, Z. The bloom of jellyfish Pelagia noctiluca along the coasts of Pula and Istria 1977-1983, with special reference to epidemiology, clinics and treatment. In UNEP: Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, Greece, 31 October-4 November 1983, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1984; pp. 83-87.
144. Maretic, Z.; Matic-Piantanida, D.; Ladavac, J. The bloom of the jellyfish Pelagia noctiluca in the Mediterranean and Adriatic and its impact on human health. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean, Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Technical Reports Series, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 260-267.
145. Vlachos, P.; Kontos, P. Epidemiology and therapeutic methods of "jellyfish" poisoning in Greece. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean, Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Technical Reports Series, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 302-308.
146. Scarpa, C. On skin injuries provoked by Coelenterata and Echinodermata. In UNEP: Workshop on Jellyfish Blooms in the Mediterranean, Athens, Greece, 31 October-4 November 1983, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1984; pp. 95-97.
147. Carli, A.; Cotta, S.; Mariottini, G.L.; Pane, L. Considerazioni sulla proliferazione di Cnidari planctonici nel Mar Ligure. Meditravel 1991, 0, 112-120.
148. Carli, A.; Mariottini, G.L.; Pane, L. Ecological and medical aspects of jellyfish poisoning. In Epidemiological studies related to the environmental quality criteria for bathing waters, shellfish-growing waters and edible marine organisms. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser. 1995, No.93. UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1995; pp. 1-21.
149. Del Negro, P.; Tubaro, A.; Della Loggia, R. Isolamento di nematocisti da Pelagia noctiluca. Nova Thalassia 1986, 8, 599-600.
150. La Spada, G.; Marino, A.; Sorrenti, G. Pelagia noctiluca "blooming" in the Strait of Messina: preliminary studies on the applicability of two methods for isolating nematocytes. P.S.Z.N. Mar. Ecol. 2002, 23 (Suppl. 1), 220-227.
151. Marino, A.; Crupi, R.; Musci, G.; La Spada, G.. Morphological integrity and toxicological properties of Pelagia noctiluca (Scyphozoa) nematocysts. Chem. Ecol. 2006, 22 (Suppl.1), S127-S131.
152. Endean, R.; Noble, M. Toxic material from the tentacles of the cubomedusan Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon 1971, 9, 255-264.
153. Wittle, L.W.; Scura, E.D.; Middlebrook, R.E. Stinging coral (Millepora tenera) toxin: a comparison of crude extracts with isolated nematocyst extracts. Toxicon 1974, 12, 481-486.
154. Mariottini, G.L.; Bussotti, S.; Carli, A. Cytotoxic effects produced on a continuous cell line by the nematocyst venom of Anemonia sulcata (Cnidaria: Anthozoa). I. Cytotechnology 1993, 11S, 158-159.
155. Carli, A.; Bussotti, S.; Mariottini, G.L.; Robbiano, L. Toxicity of jellyfish and sea-anemone venoms on cultured V79 cells. Toxicon 1996, 34, 496-500. (Pubitemid 126350024)
156. Mariottini, G.L.; Robbiano, L.; Carli, A. Toxicity of Actinia equina (Cnidaria: Anthozoa) crude venom on cultured cells. J. Biol. Res.-Boll. Soc. It. Biol. Sper. 1998, 74, 103-110.
157. Allavena, A.; Mariottini, G.L.; Carli, A.M.; Contini, S.; Martelli, A. In vitro evaluation of the cytotoxic, hemolytic and clastogenic activities of Rhizostoma pulmo toxin(s). Toxicon 1998, 36, 933-936.
158. Mariottini, G.L.; Sottofattori, E.; Mazzei, M.; Robbiano, L.; Carli, A. Cytotoxicity of the venom of Pelagia noctiluca Forskal (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa). Toxicon 2002, 40, 695-698. (Pubitemid 34439232)
159. Salleo, A.; Calabrese, L.; Barra, D.; La Spada, G. Characterization of protein components of the capsule fluid ad of the capsule wall of the nematocysts of Pelagia noctiluca. Nova Thalassia 1986, 8, 119-122.
160. Quadrifoglio, F.; Avian, M.; Del Negro, P.; Princi, T.; Scuka, M.; Gavinelli, E.; Rottini Sandrini, L. Nematocisti e tossine di Pelagia noctiluca (Forskål). Nova Thalassia 1986, 8, 155-162.
161. Olson, C.E.; Heard, M.J.; Calton, G.J.; Burnett, J.W. Interrelationships between toxins: Studies on cross-reactivity between bacterial or animal toxins and monoclonal antibodies to two jellyfish venoms. Toxicon 1985, 23, 307-316.
162. Burnett, J.W.; Calton, G.J. Venomous pelagic Coelenterates: chemistry, toxicology, immunology and treatment of their stings. Toxicon 1987, 25, 581-602.
163. Allavena, A.; Mariottini, G.L.; Martelli, A.; Carli, A.. In vitro
164. Marino, A.; Crupi, R.; Rizzo, G.; Morabito, R.; Musci, G.; La Spada G. The unusual toxicity and stability properties of crude venom from isolated nematocysts of Pelagia noctiluca. Cell. Mol. Biol. 2007, 53, 994-1002.
165. Marino, A.; Morabito, R.; Pizzata, T.; La Spada, G. Effect of various factors on Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) crude venom-induced haemolysis. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2008, 151, 144-149.
166. Marino, A.: Di Paola, R.; Crisafulli, C.; Mazzon, E.; Morabito, R.; Paterniti, I.; Galuppo, M.; Genovese, T.; La Spada, G.; Cuzzocrea, S. Protective effect of melatonin against the inflammatory response elicited by crude venom from isolated nematocysts of Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa). J. Pineal Res. 2009, 47, 56-69.
167. Marino, A.; Morabito, R.; La Spada, G. Toxicity of crude venom from the Scyphozoan Pelagia noctiluca. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2009. 154 (S21), 30.
168. Marino, A.; Morabito, R.; Pizzata, T.; La Spada, G. Effect of crude venom from nematocysts of Pelagia noctiluca (Scyphozoa) on spread discharge of acontia of Calliactis parasitica (Anthozoa). Chem. Ecol. 2008, 24 (S1), 9-17.
169. Kikinger, R. Cotylorhiza tuberculata (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa)-Life history of a stationary population. P.S.Z.N.I. Mar. Ecol. 1992, 13, 333-362.
170. Morand, P.; Dallot, S. Variations annuelles et pluriannuelles de quelques espèces du macroplancton côtier de la mer Ligure (1898-1914). Rapp. Comm. Int. Mer Médit. 1985, 29, 295-297.
171. Rottini-Sandrini, L.; Stravisi, F.; Avian, M.; D'Angela, D.; Della Loggia, R.; Del Negro, P.; Gavinelli, E.; Giorgi, R.; Kokelj, F.; Longinelli, A.; Piccinetti, C.; Princi, T.; Quadrifoglio, F.; Scarpa, C.; Scuka, M.; Tubaro, A. MED POL II Programme "Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea". C.I.M.A.M. final report. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 147-162.
172. Kokelj, F.; Plozzer, C. Irritant contact dermatitis from the jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo. Contact Dermatitis 2002, 46, 179-180. (Pubitemid 34539080)
173. Dianzani, M.U. Trattato di patologia generale; Quinta edizione. UTET: Torino, Italia, 1985; Vol.I.
174. Cariello, L.; Romano, G.; Spagnuolo, A.; Zanetti, L. Isolation and partial characterization of Rhizolysin, a high molecular weight protein with hemolytic activity, from the jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo. Toxicon 1988, 26, 1057-1065.
175. Mazzei, M.; Garzoglio, R.; Mariottini, G.L.; Carli, A. HPLC separation of toxic fraction components extracted from planktonic and benthic Cnidaria. Boll. Soc. It. Biol. Sper. 1994, 70, 143-150.
176. Mazzei, M.; Allavena, A.; Garzoglio, R.; Mariottini, G.L.; Carli, A. Chemical and chromatographic characteristics of toxin from the jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo Agassiz (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa). Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1995, 76 (Suppl. I), 38.
177. Mariottini, G.L.; Carli, A. Variations of ATP content in V79 cells treated with crude toxins of Aequorea aequorea (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) and Rhizostoma pulmo (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa). A preliminary study. J. Biol. Res.-Boll. Soc. It. Biol. Sper. 2001, 77, 27-34.
178. Gusmani, L.; Avian, M.; Galil, B.; Patriarca, P.; Rottini, G. Biologically active polypeptides in the venom of the jellyfish Rhopilema nomadica. Toxicon 1997, 35, 637-648. (Pubitemid 27244039)
179. Sendovski, U.; Goffman, M.; Goldshlak, L. Severe delayed cutaneous reaction due to Mediterranean jellyfish (Rhopilema nomadica) envenomation. Contact Dermatitis 2005, 52, 282-283.
180. Veraldi, S.; Carrera, C. Delayed cutaneous reaction to jellyfish. Int. J. Dermatol. 2000, 39, 28-29.
181. Silfen, R.; Vilan, A.; Wohl, I.; Leviav, A. Mediterranean jellyfish (Rhopilema nomadica) sting. Burns 2003, 29, 868-870. (Pubitemid 37433930)
182. Kokelj, F.; Avian, M.; Spanier, E.; Galil, B. Dermatotoxicity of 2 nematocyst preparations of the jellyfish Rhopilema nomadica. Contact Dermatitis 1995, 32, 244.
183. Lotan, A.; Fishman, L.; Zlotkin, E. Toxin compartmentation and delivery in the Cnidaria: the nematocyst's tubule as a multiheaded poisonous arrrow. J. Exp. Zool. 1996, 275, 444-451.
184. Rilov, G.; Benayahu, Y.; Gasith, A. Low abundance and skewed population structure of the whelk Stramonita haemastoma along the Israeli Mediterranean coast. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2001, 218, 189-202.
185. Lotan, A.; Ben-Hillel, R.; Loya, Y. Aggregation and dispersal of Rhopilema nomadica, a tropical immigrant medusa in the Mediterranean Sea. Isr. J. Zool. 1993, 39, 67-68.
186. Frank, U.; Rinkevich, B. Scyphozoan jellyfish's mesoglea supports attachment, spreading and migration of anthozoans' cells in vitro. Cell Biol. Int. 1999, 23, 307-311.
187. Afzelius, B.A.: Franzén, K. The spermatozoon of the jellyfish Nausithoë. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 1971, 37, 186-199.
188. Benović, A. The aspect of jellyfish distribution in the Adriatic Sea. In UNEP: Jellyfish blooms in the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea. MAP Tech. Rep. Ser, No.47, UNEP: Athens, Greece, 1991; pp. 41-50.
189. Galil, B.S.; Spanier, E. The Scyphomedusae off the Mediterranean Coast of Israel. Rapp. Comm. int. Mer Médit. 1990, 32, 22.
190. Çevik, C.; Erkol, I.L.; Toklu, B. A new record of an alien jellyfish from the Levantine coast of Turkey Cassiopea andromeda (Forsskal, 1775) (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa: Rhizostomea). Aquat. Invasions 2006, 1, 196-197.
191. Maas, O. Die Scyphomedusen der Siboga Expedition. Siboga Exped. 1903, 11, 1-91.
192. Rottini Sandrini, L.; Bratina, F.; Avian, M. Aspetti ultrastrutturali della gametogenesi in Discomedusa lobata (Claus). Nova Thalassia 1986, 8 (Suppl. 2), 59-66.
193. Kimball, A.B.; Arambula, K.Z.; Stauffer, A.R.; Levy, V.; Davis, V.W.; Liu, M.; Rehmus, W.E.; Lotan, A.; Auerbach, P.S. Efficacy of a jellyfish sting inhibitor in preventing jellyfish stings in normal volunteers. Wild. Environ. Med. 2004, 15, 102-108.
194. Ulrich, H.; Landthaler, M.; Vogt ,T. Granulomatous jellyfish dermatitis. JDDG-Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellshaft 2007, 6, 493-495.
195. Mariottini, G.L.; Giacco, E.; Pane, L. Inhibition of the cytotoxicity of Pelagia noctiluca venom by lanthanum sulfate. J. Biol. Res.-Boll. Soc. It. Biol. Sper. 2010, 83, in press.
196. Edwards, L.; Hessinger, D.A. Portuguese Man-of-war (Physalia physalis) venom induces calcium influx into cells by permeabilizing plasma membranes. Toxicon 2000, 38, 1015-1028.