The influence of affect on higher level cognition: A review of research on interpretation, judgement, decision making and reasoning

Cognition and Emotion

Volumn 24, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 561-595

  Blanchette, Isabelle ^a   Richards, Anne ^b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC À TROIS RIVIÈRES   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Decision making; Emotion; Interpretation; Judgement; Reasoning

Indexed keywords

AFFECT; AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; ANGER; ANXIETY; ATTENTION; AVERSION; COGNITION; DECISION MAKING; DEPRESSION; DYSPHORIA; ELECTRODERMAL RESPONSE; EMOTION; FACIAL EXPRESSION; FEAR; HUMAN; INFORMATION PROCESSING; INSULA; INTERPRETATION; LIFE EVENT; MOOD; PERCEPTION; PHOBIA; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SADNESS; SEMANTICS; THINKING; THREAT; WORKING MEMORY;

EID: 77952378705     PISSN: 02699931     EISSN: 14640600     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02699930903132496     Document Type: Review

References (185)

1. Allan, L. G., Siegel, S., & Hannah, S. (2007). The sad truth about depressive realism. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 482-495.
2. Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1979). Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 441-485.
3. Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1988). Depressive realism: Four theoretical perspectives. In L. B. Alloy (Ed.), Cognitive processes in depression (pp. 223-265). New York: Guilford Press.
4. Ambady, N., & Gray, H. M. (2002). On being sad and mistaken: Mood effects on the accuracy of thin-slice judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 947-961.
5. Amir, N., Beard, C., & Bower, E. (2005). Interpretation bias and social anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29, 433-443.
6. Amir, N., Foa, E. B., & Coles, M. E. (1998). Automatic activation and strategic avoidance of threat-relevant information in social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 285-290.
7. Anders, S., Lotze, M., Erb, M., Grodd, W., & Birbaumer, N. (2004). Brain activity underlying emotional valence and arousal: A response-related fMRI study. Human Brain Mapping, 23, 200-209.
8. Atkinson, M. J., & Caldwell, L. (1997). The differential effects of mood on patients' ratings of life quality and satisfaction with their care. Journal of Affective Disorders, 44, 169-175.
9. Aviezer, H., Hassin, R. R., Ryan, J., Grady, C., Susskind, J., Anderson, A., et al. (2008). Angry, disgust, or afraid? Studies on the malleability of emotion perception. Psychological Science, 19, 724-732.
10. Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1-24.
11. Barrett, L. F., Lindquist, K. A., & Gendron, M. (2007). Language as a context for the perception of emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 327-332.
12. Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science, 275, 1293-1294.
13. Bishop, S. J. (2007). Neurocognitive mechanisms of anxiety: An integrative account. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 307-316.
14. Bishop, S. J., Cohen, J. D., Fossella, J., Caswey, B. J., & Farah, M. J. (2006). COMT genotype influences prefrontal response to emotional distraction. Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral Neuroscience, 6, 62-70.
15. Bishop, S. J., Duncan, J., & Lawrence, A. D. (2004). State anxiety modulation of the amygdala response to unattended threat-related stimuli. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 10364-10368.
16. Bisson, M. A., & Sears, C. R. (2007). The effect of depressed mood on the interpretation of ambiguity, with and without negative mood induction. Cognition and Emotion, 21, 614-645.
17. Blanchette, I. (2006). The effect of emotion on interpretation and logic in a conditional reasoning task. Memory & Cognition, 34, 1112-1125.
18. Blanchette, I., & Campbell, M. (2005). The effect of emotion on syllogistic reasoning in a group of war veterans. Paper presented at the XXVIIth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Stresa, Italy.
19. Blanchette, I. Lindsay, P. & Davies, S. (2008). Conditional reasoning about highly emotional events: Victims of sexual abuse. Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference on Thinking, Venice, Italy.
20. Blanchette, I., & Richards, A. (2003). Anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguous information: Beyond the emotion-congruent effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 294-309.
21. Blanchette, I., & Richards, A. (2004). Reasoning about emotional and neutral materials. Is logic affected by emotion? Psychological Science, 15, 745-752.
22. Blanchette, I., Richards, A., & Cross, A. (2007a). Anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguous facial expressions: The influence of contextual cues. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 1101-1115.
23. Blanchette, I., Richards, A., Melnyk, L., & Lavda, A. (2007b). Reasoning about emotional contents following shocking terrorist attacks: A tale of three cities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 13, 47-56.
24. Bless, H., Bonher, G., Schwarz, N., & Strack, F. (1990). Mood and persuasion: A cognitive response analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 331-345.
25. Bodenhausen, G. V., Gabriel, S., & Lineberger, M. (2000). Sadness and susceptibility to judgmental bias: The case of anchoring. Psychological Science, 11, 320-323.
26. Bodenhausen, G. V., Kramer, G. P., & Susser, K. (1994a). Happiness and stereotypic thinking in social judgment. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 621-632.
27. Bodenhausen, G. V., Sheppard, L. A., & Kramer, G. P. (1994b). Negative affect and social judgment: The differential impact of anger and sadness. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 45-62.
28. Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148.
29. Brendle, J. R., & Wenzel, A. (2004). Differentiating between memory and interpretation biases in socially anxious and nonanxious individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 155-171.
30. Butler, G., & Mathews, A. (1983). Cognitive processes in anxiety. Advances in Behaviour Research & Therapy, 5, 51-62.
31. Butler, G., & Mathews, A. (1987). Anticipatory anxiety and risk perception. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, 551-565.
32. Byrne, A., & Eysenck, M. W. (1993). Individual differences in positive and negative interpretive biases. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 849-851.
33. Calvo, M. G., & Castillo, M. D. (1997). Moodcongruent bias in interpretation of ambiguity: Strategic processes and temporary activation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50A, 163-182.
34. Calvo, M. G., & Castillo, M. D. (2001a). Bias in predictive inferences during reading. Discourse Processes, 32, 43-71.
35. Calvo, M. G., & Castillo, M. D. (2001b). Selective interpretation in anxiety: Uncertainty for threatening events. Cognition and Emotion, 15, 299-320.
36. Calvo, M. G., Castillo, M. D., & Estevez, A. (1999). On-line predictive inferences in reading: Processing time during versus after the priming context. Memory & Cognition, 27, 834-843.
37. Calvo, M. G., Eysenck, M. W., & Castillo, M. D. (1997). Interpretation bias in test anxiety: The time course of predictive inferences. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 43-63.
38. Calvo, M. G., Eysenck, M. W., & Estevez, A. (1994). Ego-threat interpretive bias in test anxiety: On-line inferences. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 127-146.
39. Cane, D. B., & Gotlib, I. H. (1985). Depression and the effects of positive and negative feedback on expectations, evaluations, and performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 145-160.
40. Channon, S., & Baker, J. (1994). Reasoning strategies in depression: Effects of depressed mood on a syllogism task. Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 707-711.
41. Clore, G. L., & Huntsinger, J. R. (2007). How emotions inform judgment and regulate thought. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 393-399.
42. Constans, J. I. (2001). Worry propensity and the perception of risk. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 721-729.
43. Constans, J. I., & Mathews, A. M. (1993). Mood and the subjective risk of future events. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 545-560.
44. Copeland, D. E., & Radvansky, G. A. (2004). Working memory and syllogistic reasoning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57A, 1437-1457.
45. Craig, A. D. (2002). How do you feel? Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3, 655-666.
46. Craig, A. D. (2003). Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 13, 500-505.
47. Damasio, A. R. (1995). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. New York: Avon Books.
48. Davey, G. C. L., Bickerstaffe, S., & MacDonald, B. A. (2006). Experienced disgust causes a negative interpretation bias: A causal role for disgust in anxious psychopathology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1375-1384.
49. Davey, G. C. L., Menzies, R., & Gallardo, B. (1997). Height phobia and biases in the interpretation of bodily sensations: Some links between acrophobia and agoraphobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 997-1001.
50. de Gelder, B., Meeren, H. K. M., Righart, R., van den Stock, J., Riet, W. A. C., & Tamietto, M. (2006). Beyond the face: Exploring rapid influences of context on face processing. Progress in Brain Research, 155, 37-48.
51. de Jong, P. J., Haenen, M.-A., Schmidt, A., & Mayer, B. (1998). Hypochondriasis: The role of fearconfirming reasoning. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 65-74.
52. de Jong, P. J., Mayer, B., & van den Hout, M. (1997). Conditional reasoning and phobic fear: Evidence for a fear-confirming reasoning pattern. Behavior Research and Therapy, 35, 507-516.
53. de Jong, P. J., & Merckelbach, H. (2000). Phobiarelevant illusory correlations: The role of phobic responsivity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 597-601.
54. de Jong, P. J., Weertman, A., Horselenberg, R., & van den Hout, M. A. (1997). Deductive reasoning and pathological anxiety: Evidence for a relatively strong "belief bias" in phobic subjects. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 21, 647-662.
55. Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (1998). Workingmemory capacity in high trait-anxious and repressor groups. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 697-713.
56. Derry, P. A., & Kuiper, N. A. (1981). Schematic processing and self-reference in clinical depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 286-297.
57. DeSteno, D., Petty, R. E., Wegener, D. T., & Rucke, D. D. (2000). Correction to DeSteno et al. (2000). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 707.
58. Dunn, B. D., Dalgleish, T., & Lawrence, A. D. (2006). The somatic marker hypothesis: A critical evaluation. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 239-271.
59. Edwards, J. A., & Weary, G. (1993). Depression and the impression-formation continuum: Piecemeal processing despite the availability of category information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 636-645.
60. Eysenck, M. W., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1987). Cognitive functioning and anxiety. Psychological Research, 49, 189-195.
61. Eysenck, M. W., Mogg, K., May, J., Richards, A., & Mathews, A. (1991). Bias in interpretation of ambiguous sentences related to threat in anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 144-150.
62. Fazio, R. H. (2001). On the automatic activation of associated evaluations: An overview. Cognition and Emotion, 15, 115-141.
63. Fellows, L. K., & Farah, M. J. (2003). Ventromedial frontal cortex mediates affective shifting in humans: Evidence from a reversal learning paradigm. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 126, 1830-1837.
64. Fernandez-Dols, J. M., & Carroll, J. M. (1997). Is the meaning perceived in facial expression independent of its context? In J. A. Russell & J. M. Fernandez-Dols (Eds.), The psychology of facial expressions (pp. 275-294). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
65. Fiedler, K. (2000). Toward and integrative account of affect and cognition phenomena using the BIAS computer algorithm. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Feeling and thinking. The role of affect in social cognition (pp. 223-252). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
66. Fischhoff, B., Gonzalez, R. M., Lerner, J. S., & Small, D. A. (2005). Evolving judgments of terror risks: Foresight, hindsight, and emotion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11, 124-139.
67. Foa, E. B., Franklin, M. E., Perry, K. J., & Herbert, J. D. (1996). Cognitive biases in generalized social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 433-439.
68. Forgas, J. P. (2001). Affect, cognition, and interpersonal behavior: The mediating role of processing strategies. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Handbook of affect and social cognition (pp. 293-318). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
69. Forgas, J. P. (Ed.).(2006). Affect in social thinking and behavior. New York: Psychology Press.
70. Forgas, J. P., Bower, G. H., & Krantz, S. E. (1984). The influence of mood on perceptions of social interactions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 497-513.
71. Furl, N., van Rijsbergen, N. J., Treves, A., & Dolan, R. J. (2007). Experience-dependent coding of facial expression in superior temporal sulcus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 13485-13489.
72. Gadsby, N., Arnott, W. L., & Copland, D. A. (2008). An investigation of working memory influences on lexical ambiguity resolution. Neuropsychology, 22, 209-216.
73. Gaskell, M. G., & Marslen Wilson, W. D. (2001). Lexical ambiguity resolution and spoken word recognition: Bridging the gap. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 325-349.
74. Gasper, K., & Clore, G. L. (1998). The persistent use of negative affect by anxious individuals to estimate risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1350-1363.
75. Gernsbacher, M. A., & Faust, M. E. (1991). The mechanism of suppression: A component of general comprehension skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory. and Cognition, 17, 245-262.
76. Gifford, S., Reynolds, S., Bell, S., & Wilson, C. (2008). Threat interpretation bias in anxious children and their mothers. Cognition and Emotion, 22, 497-508.
77. Goel, V., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Reciprocal neural responses within lateral and ventral medial prefrontal cortex during hot and cold reasoning. Neuro-Image, 20, 2314-2321.
78. Gold, R. S. (2002). The effects of mood states on the AIDS-related judgements of gay men. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 13, 475-481.
79. Goldin, P. R., McRae, K., Ramel, W., & Gross, J. J. (2008). The neural bases of emotion regulation: Reappraisal and suppression of negative emotion. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 577-586.
80. Greenberg, M. S., & Beck, A. T. (1989). Depression versus anxiety: A test of the content-specificity hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 9-13.
81. Grey, S., & Mathews, A. (2000). Effects of training on interpretation of emotional ambiguity. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 1143-1162.
82. Hadwin, J., Frost, S., French, C. C., & Richards, A. (1997). Cognitive processing and trait anxiety in typically developing children: Evidence for an interpretation bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 486-490.
83. Halberstadt, J. B., Niedenthal, P. M., & Kushner, J. (1995). Resolution of lexical ambiguity by emotional state. Psychological Science, 6, 278-282.
84. Hertel, P. T., Brozovich, F., Joormann, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2008). Biases in interpretation and memory in generalized social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 278-288.
85. Hertel, P. T., Mathews, A., Peterson, S., & Kintner, K. (2003). Transfer of training emotionally biased interpretations. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 775-784.
86. Higa, C. K., & Daleiden, E. L. (2008). Social anxiety and cognitive biases in non-referred children: The interaction of self-focused attention and threat interpretation biases. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 441-452.
87. Hirsch, C., & Mathews, A. (1997). Interpretive inferences when reading about emotional events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 1123-1132.
88. Hirsch, C., Mathews, A., & Clark, D. M. (2007). Inducing an interpretation bias changes self-imagery: A preliminary investigation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2173-2181.
89. Huppert, J. D., Pasupuleti, R. V., Foa, E. B., & Mathews, A. (2007). Interpretation biases in social anxiety: Response generation, response selection, and self-appraisals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1505-1515.
90. In-Albon, T., Klein, A., Rinck, M., Becker, E., & Schneider, S. (2008). Development and evaluation of a new paradigm for the assessment of anxietydisorder-specific interpretation bias using picture stimuli. Cognition and Emotion, 22, 422-436.
91. Isen, A. M., & Geva, N. (1987). The influence of positive affect on acceptable level of risk: The person with a large canoe has a large worry. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39, 145-154.
92. Isen, A. M., Nygren, T. E., & Ashby, F. G. (1988). Influence of positive affect on the subjective utility of gains and losses: It is just not worth the risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 710-717.
93. Isen, A. M., & Patrick, R. (1983). The effect of positive feelings on risk taking: When the chips are down. Organizational Behavior & Human Performance, 31, 194-202.
94. Johnson, E. J., & Tversky, A. (1983). Affect, generalization, and the perception of risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 20-31.
95. Johnson-Laird, P. N., Mancini, F., & Gangemi, A. (2006). A hyper-emotion theory of psychological illnesses. Psychological Review, 113, 822-841.
96. Jones, G. V. (1984). Fragment and schema models of recall. Memory & Cognition, 12, 250-263.
97. Jones, G. V. (1987). Independence and exclusivity among psychological processes: Implications for the structure of recall. Psychological Review, 94, 229-235.
98. Kemp, R., Chua, S., McKenna, P., & David, A. (1997). Reasoning and delusions. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 398-411.
99. Kensinger, E. A., & Corkin, S. (2003). Effect of negative emotional content on working memory and long-term memory. Emotion, 3, 378-393.
100. Kim, H., Somerville, L. H., Johnstone, T., Alexander, A. L., & Whalen, P. J. (2003). Inverse amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex responses to surprised faces. Neuroreport, 14, 2317-2322.
101. Kim, H., Somerville, L. H., Johnstone, T., Polis, S., Alexander, A. L., Shin, L. M., et al. (2004). Contextual modulation of amygdala responsivity to surprised faces. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 1730-1745.
102. Kolassa, I.-T., Buchmann, A., Lauche, R., Kolassa, S., Partchev, I., Miltner, W. H. R., et al. (2007). Spider phobics more easily see a spider in morphed schematic pictures [online journal]. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 3: 59.
103. Kverno, K. S. (2000). Trait anxiety influences on judgments of frequency and recall. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 395-404.
104. Laney, C., Campbell, H. V., Heuer, F., & Reisberg, D. (2004). Memory for thematically arousing events. Memory & Cognition, 32, 1149-1159.
105. Laney, C., Heuer, F., & Reisberg, D. (2003). Thematically induced arousal in naturally occurring emotional memories. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 995-1004.
106. Lavric, A., Rippon, G., & Gray, J. R. (2003). Threatevoked anxiety disrupts spatial working memory performance: An attentional account. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 489-504.
107. Lawson, C., & MacLeod, C. (1999). Depression and the interpretation of ambiguity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 463-474.
108. Lefford, A. (1946). The influence of emotional subject matter on logical reasoning. Journal of General Psychology, 34, 127-151.
109. Lerner, J. S., Gonzalez, R. M., Small, D. A., & Fischhoff, B. (2003). Effects of fear and anger on perceived risks of terrorism: A national field experiment. Psychological Science, 14, 144-150.
110. Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2000). Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgement and choice. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 473-493.
111. Lucas, M. (1999). Context effects in lexical access: A meta-analysis. Memory & Cognition, 27, 385-398.
112. Mackie, D. M., & Worth, L. T. (1989). Processing deficits and the mediation of positive affect in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(1), 27-40.
113. MacLeod, C. (1999). Anxiety and anxiety disorders. In T. Dalgleish & M. J. Power (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 447-477). New York: Wiley.
114. MacLeod, C., & Campbell, L. (1992). Memory accessibility and probability judgments: An experimental evaluation of the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 890-902.
115. MacLeod, C., Campbell, L., Rutherford, E., & Wilson, E. (2004). The causal status of anxiety-linked attentional and interpretive bias. In J. Yiend (Ed.), Cognition, emotion and psychopathology: Theoretical, empirical and clinical directions (pp. 172-189). New York: Cambridge University Press.
116. MacLeod, C., & Cohen, I. L. (1993). Anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguity: A text comprehension study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 238-247.
117. Maia, T. V., & McClelland, J. L. (2004). A reexamination of the evidence for the somatic marker hypothesis: What participants really know about the Iowa gambling task. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 16075-16080.
118. Maner, J. K., & Gerend, M. A. (2007). Motivationally selective risk judgments: Do fear and curiosity boost the boons or the banes? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103, 256-267.
119. Martin, L., Harlow, T. F., & Strack, F. (1992). The role of bodily sensations in the evaluation of social events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 412-419.
120. Martin, M., Horder, P., & Jones, G. V. (1992). Integral bias in naming of phobia-related words. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 479-486.
121. Martin, M., & Jones, G. V. (1995). Integral bias in the cognitive processing of emotionally linked pictures. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 419-435.
122. Mathews, A., & Mackintosh, B. (1998). A cognitive model of selective processing in anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 539-560.
123. Mathews, A., & Mackintosh, B. (2000). Induced emotional interpretation bias and anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 602-615.
124. Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (2002). Induced processing biases have causal effects on anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 331-354.
125. Mathews, A., Richards, A., & Eysenck, M. (1989). Interpretation of homophones related to threat in anxiety states. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 31-34.
126. Mayer, J. D., Gaschke, Y. N., Braverman, D. L., & Evans, T. W. (1992). Mood-congruent judgment is a general effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 119-132.
127. Mayer, J. D., & Hanson, E. (1995). Mood-congruent judgment over time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 237-244.
128. McClelland, J. L. (1987). The case for interactionism in language processing. In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention and performance 12: The psychology of reading (pp. 3-36). Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
129. Melton, R. J. (1995). The role of positive affect in syllogism performance. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 788-794.
130. Mittal, V., & Ross, W. T. (1998). The impact of positive and negative affect and issue framing on issue interpretation and risk taking. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 76, 298-324.
131. Mogg, K., Bradbury, K. E., & Bradley, B. P. (2006). Interpretation of ambiguous information in clinical depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1411-1419.
132. Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Hallowell, N. (1994). Attentional bias to threat: Roles of trait anxiety, stressful events, and awareness. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47A, 841-864.
133. Muris, P., & van der Heiden, S. (2006). Anxiety, depression, and judgments about the probability of future negative and positive events in children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 252-261.
134. Niedenthal, P. M., & Setterlund, M. B. (1994). Emotion congruence in perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 401-411.
135. Nunn, J. D., Mathews, A., & Trower, P. (1997). Selective processing of concern-related information in depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 489-503.
136. Nygaard, L. C., & Lunders, E. R. (2002). Resolution of lexical ambiguity by emotional tone of voice. Memory & Cognition, 30, 583-593.
137. Oaksford, M., Morris, F., Grainger, B., & Williams, J. M. G. (1996). Mood, reasoning, and central executive processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory. and Cognition, 22, 476-492.
138. Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2008). Cognitive emotion regulation: Insights from social cognitive and affective neuroscience. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 153-158.
139. Onifer, W., & Swinney, D. A. (1981). Accessing lexical ambiguities during sentence comprehension: Effects of frequency of meaning and contextual bias. Memory & Cognition, 9, 225-236.
140. Pacini, R., Muir, F., & Epstein, S. (1998). Depressive realism from the perspective of cognitive-experiential self-theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1056-1068.
141. Palfai, T. P., & Salovey, P. (1993). The influence of depressed and elated mood on deductive and inductive reasoning. Imagination. Cognition and Personality, 13, 57-71.
142. Pell, P. J. & Richards, A. (2009). The ambiguity of unambiguous facial expression: A study of adaptation induced perceptual shifts. Manuscript submitted for publication.
143. Perham, N., & Oaksford, M. (2005). Deontic reasoning with emotional content: Evolutionary psychology or decision theory? Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 29, 681-718.
144. Pham, M. T. (1998). Representativeness, relevance, and the use of feelings in decision making. Journal of Consumer Research, 25, 144-159.
145. Pham, M. T. (2007). Emotion and rationality: A critical review and interpretation of empirical evidence. Review of General Psychology, 11, 155-178.
146. Phan, K. L., Fitzgerald, D. A., Nathan, P. J., Moore, G. J., Uhde, T. W., & Tancer, M. E. (2005). Neural substrates for voluntary suppression of negative affect: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 210-219.
147. Raghunathan, R., & Pham, M. T. (1999). All negative moods are not equal: Motivational influences of anxiety and sadness on decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 79, 56-77.
148. Ray, R. A. D., Ochsner, K. N., Cooper, J. C., Robertson, E. R., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Gross, J. J. (2005). Individual differences in trait rumination and the neural systems supporting cognitive reappraisal. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience, 5, 156-168.
149. Richards, A., Blanchette, I., & Munjiza, J. (2007a). Contextual influences in the resolution of ambiguity in anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 21, 879-890.
150. Richards, A., & French, C. C. (1992). An anxietyrelated bias in semantic activation when processing threat/neutral homographs. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45A, 503-525.
151. Richards, A., French, C. C., Calder, A. J., Webb, B., Fox, R., & Young, A. W. (2002). Anxiety-related bias in the classification of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. Emotion, 2, 273-287.
152. Richards, A., French, C. C., Johnson, W., Naparstek, J., & Williams, J. (1992). Effects of mood manipulation and anxiety on performance of an emotional Stroop task. British Journal of Psychology, 83, 479-491.
153. Richards, A., French, C. C., Keogh, E., & Carter, C. (2000). Test anxiety, inferential reasoning and working memory load. Anxiety. Stress and Coping, 13, 87-109.
154. Richards, A., French, C. C., Nash, G., Hadwin, J. A., & Donnelly, N. (2007b). A comparison of selective attention and facial processing biases in typically developing children who are high and low in selfreported trait anxiety. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 481-495.
155. Richards, A., Reynolds, A., & French, C. C. (1993). Anxiety and the spelling and use in sentences of threat/neutral homophones. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 12, 18-25.
156. Russo, R., Patterson, N., Roberson, D., Stevenson, N., & Upward, J. (1996). Emotional value of information and its relevance in the interpretation of homophones in anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 10, 213-220.
157. Salemink, E., van den Hout, M., & Kindt, M. (2007). Trained interpretive bias: Validity and effects on anxiety. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38, 212-224.
158. Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1983). Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 513-523.
159. Semmler, C., & Brewer, N. (2002). Effects of mood and emotion on juror processing and judgments. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 20, 423-436.
160. Shackman, A. J., Sarinopoulos, I., Maxwell, J. S., Pizzagalli, D. A., Lavric, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2006). Anxiety selectively disrupts visuospatial working memory. Emotion, 6, 40-61.
161. Simpson, G. B. (1984). Lexical ambiguity and its role in models of word recognition. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 316-340.
162. Simpson, G. B., & Burgess, C. (1985). Activation and selection processes in the recognition of ambiguous words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11, 28-39.
163. Sinclair, R. C. (1988). Mood, categorization breadth, and performance appraisal: The effects of order of information acquisition and affective state on halo, accuracy, information retrieval, and evaluations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 42, 22-46.
164. Smeets, G., de Jong, P. J., & Mayer, B. (2000). If you suffer from a headache, then you have a brain tumor: Domain-specific reasoning "bias" and hypochondriasis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 763-776.
165. Somerville, L. H., Kim, H., Johnstone, T., Alexander, A. L., & Whalen, P. J. (2004). Human amygdale responses during presentation of happy and neutral faces: Correlations with state anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 897-903.
166. Sprengelmeyer, R., Young, A. W., Sprenglemeyer, A., Calder, A. J., Rowland, D., Perrett, D., et al. (1997). Recognition of facial expressions: Selective impairment of specific emotions in Huntington's disease. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 14, 839-879.
167. Stopa, L., & Clark, D. M. (2000). Social phobia and interpretation of social events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 273-283.
168. Ströber, J. (1997). Trait anxiety and pessimistic appraisal of risk and chance. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 465-476.
169. Taghavi, M. R., Moradi, A. R., Neshat-Doost, H. T., Yule, W., & Dalgleish, T. (2000). Interpretation of ambiguous emotional information in clinically anxious children and adolescents. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 809-822.
170. Tanner, C., & Medin, D. L. (2004). Protected values: No omission bias and no framing effects. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 185-191.
171. Tiedens, L. Z., & Linton, S. (2001). Judgment under emotional certainty and uncertainty: The effects of specific emotions on information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 973-988.
172. Tomb, I., Hauser, M., Deldin, P., & Caramazza, A. (2002). Do somatic markers mediate decisions on the gambling task? Nature Neuroscience, 5, 1103-1104.
173. Västfjäll, D., Peters, E., & Slovic, P. (2008). Affect, risk perception and future optimism after the tsunami disaster. Judgment and Decision Making, 3, 64-72.
174. Waters, A. M., Craske, M. G., Bergman, R. L., & Treanor, M. (2008). Threat interpretation bias as a vulnerability factor in childhood anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 39-47.
175. Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Smith, S. M. (1995). Positive mood can increase or decrease message scrutiny: The hedonic contingency view of mood and message processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 5-15.
176. Weis, R., & Lovejoy, M. C. (2002). Information processing in everyday life: Emotion-congruent bias in mothers' reports of parent-child interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 216-230.
177. Wenzel, A., Finstrom, N., Jordan, J., & Brendle, J. R. (2005). Memory and interpretation of visual epresentations of threat in socially anxious and nonanxious individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1029-1044.
178. Wilson, E. J., MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Rutherford, E. M. (2006). The causal role of interpretive bias in anxiety reactivity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 103-111.
179. Worth, L. T., & Mackie, D. M. (1987). Cognitive mediation of positive affect in persuasion. Social Cognition, 5, 76-94.
180. Yiend, J., & Mackintosh, B. (2004). The experimental modification of processing biases. In J. Yiend (Ed.), Cognition, emotion and psychopathology: Theoretical, empirical and clinical directions (pp. 190-210). New York: Cambridge University Press.
181. Yiend, J., Mackintosh, B., & Mathews, A. (2005). Enduring consequences of experimentally induced biases in interpretation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 779-797.
182. Yoon, K. L., & Zinbarg, R. E. (2008). Interpreting neutral faces as threatening is a default mode for socially anxious individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 680-685.
183. Young, A. W., Rowland, D., Calder, A. J., & Etcoff, N. L. (1997). Facial expression megamix: Tests of dimensional and category accounts of emotion recognition. Cognition, 63, 271-313.
184. Zelenski, J. M., & Larsen, R. J. (2002). Predicting the future: How affect-related personality traits influence likelihood judgments of future events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1000-1010.
185. Zhou, W., & Chen, D. (2009). Fear-related chemosignals modulate recognition of fear in ambiguous facial expressions. Psychological Science, 20, 177-183.