A systematic review of the evidence for Canada's Physical Activity Guidelines for Adults

International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity

Volumn 7, Issue , 2010, Pages

  Warburton, Darren E R ^a   Charlesworth, Sarah ^a   Ivey, Adam ^a   Nettlefold, Lindsay ^a   Bredin, Shannon S D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BETA CAROTENE;

BRAIN ISCHEMIA; BREAST CANCER; CANADA; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLON CANCER; EXERCISE; EXERCISE INTENSITY; FITNESS; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; MORTALITY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OSTEOPOROSIS; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIMARY PREVENTION; RECREATION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SITTING; SPORT; STROKE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; WALKING;

EID: 77951950649     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14795868     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/1479-5868-7-39     Document Type: Review

References (351)

1. Bouchard C, Shephard RJ. Physical activity fitness and health: the model and key concepts. Physical activity fitness and health: International proceedings and consensus statement 1994, 77-88. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, Bouchard C, Shephard RJ, Stephens T.
2. Blair SN, Brodney S. Effects of physical inactivity and obesity on morbidity and mortality: current evidence and research issues. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999, 31:S646-662. 10.1097/00005768-199911001-00025, 10593541.
3. American College of Sports Medicine Position stand: Exercise and physical activity for older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998, 30:992-1008. 10.1097/00005768-199806000-00033, 9624662, American College of Sports Medicine.
4. McAuley E. Physical activity and psychosocial outcomes. Physical activity, fitness and health: the consensus knowledge 1994, 551-568. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, Bouchard C, Shephard RJ, Stephens T.
5. Taylor RS, Brown A, Ebrahim S, Jolliffe J, Noorani H, Rees K, Skidmore B, Stone JA, Thompson DR, Oldridge N. Exercise-based rehabilitation for patients with coronary heart disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Med 2004, 116:682-692. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.01.009, 15121495.
6. Blair SN, Cheng Y, Holder JS. Is physical activity or physical fitness more important in defining health benefits?. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:S379-399. discussion S419-320, 10.1097/00005768-200105001-01549, 11427763.
7. Blair SN, Kohl HW, Paffenbarger RS, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW. Physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy men and women. JAMA 1989, 262:2395-2401. 10.1001/jama.262.17.2395, 2795824.
8. Paffenbarger RS, Hyde RT, Hsieh CC, Wing AL. Physical activity, other life-style patterns, cardiovascular disease and longevity. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1986, 711:85-91.
9. Warburton DE, Gledhill N, Quinney A. Musculoskeletal fitness and health. Can J Appl Physiol 2001, 26:217-237.
10. Warburton DE, Gledhill N, Quinney A. The effects of changes in musculoskeletal fitness on health. Can J Appl Physiol 2001, 26:161-216.
11. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives. 1991, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
12. Puett DW, Griffin MR. Published trials of nonmedicinal and noninvasive therapies for hip and knee osteoarthritis. Ann Intern Med 1994, 121:133-140.
13. Shephard RJ. Absolute versus relative intensity of physical activity in a dose-response context. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:S400-418. discussion S419-420, 10.1097/00005768-200106001-00008, 11427764.
14. Lee IM, Skerrett PJ. Physical activity and all-cause mortality: what is the dose-response relation?. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:S459-471. discussion S493-454, 10.1097/00005768-200106001-00016, 11427772.
15. Warburton DE, Nicol C, Bredin SS. Prescribing exercise as preventive therapy. CMAJ 2006, 174:961-974. 1405860, 16567757.
16. Warburton DE, Nicol C, Bredin SS. Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. CMAJ 2006, 174:801-809. 1402378, 16534088.
17. Bouchard C, Shephard RJ, Stephens T. The consensus statement. Physical activity fitness and health: International proceedings and consensus statement 1994, 9-76. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, Bouchard C, Shephard RJ, Stephens T.
18. Warburton DER, Katzmarzyk PT, Rhodes RE, Shephard RJ. Evidence-informed physical activity guidelines for Canadian adults. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2007, 32:S17-74. 10.1139/H07-168, 19377540.
19. Warburton DER, Katzmarzyk PT, Rhodes RE, Shephard RJ. Evidence-informed physical activity guidelines for Canadian adults. Can J Pub Health 2007, 98:S16-S68.
20. Katzmarzyk PT, Janssen I. The economic costs associated with physical inactivity and obesity in Canada: an update. Can J Appl Physiol 2004, 29:90-115.
21. Health Canada and Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology Canada's Physical Activity Guide to Healthy Active Living. 1998, Ottawa, ON: Health Canada (Cat. No. H39-429/1998-1E), Health Canada and Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology., http://www.paguide.com
22. Health Canada and Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology Canada's Physical Activity Guide to Healthy Active Living for Older Adults. 1999, Ottawa, ON: Health Canada, Health Canada and Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology., http://www.paguide.com
23. Health Canada and Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology Canada's Physical Activity Guide to Healthy Active Living for Children and Youths. 2002, Ottawa, ON: Health Canada, Health Canada and Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology., http://www.paguide.com
24. Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology Canadian Physical Activity, Fitness and Lifestyle Approach 2003, Ottawa: Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, 3, Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology.
25. Lau DC, Douketis JD, Morrison KM, Hramiak IM, Sharma AM, Ur E. 2006 Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children [summary]. CMAJ 2007, 176:S1-13. 1839777, 17420481.
26. Gorber SC, Tremblay M, Moher D, Gorber B. A comparison of direct vs. self-report measures for assessing height, weight and body mass index: a systematic review. Obes Rev 2007, 8:307-326. 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00347.x, 17578381.
27. Downs SH, Black N. The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and non-randomised studies of health care interventions. J Epidemiol Community Health 1998, 52:377-384. 10.1136/jech.52.6.377, 1756728, 9764259.
28. Prince SA, Adamo KB, Hamel ME, Hardt J, Gorber SC, Tremblay M. A comparison of direct versus self-report measures for assessing physical activity in adults: a systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2008, 5:56. 10.1186/1479-5868-5-56, 2588639, 18990237.
29. Macera CA, Hootman JM, Sniezek JE. Major public health benefits of physical activity. Arthritis Rheum 2003, 49:122-128. 10.1002/art.10907, 12579603.
30. Macera CA, Powell KE. Population attributable risk: implications of physical activity dose. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:S635-639. discussion 640-631, 10.1097/00005768-200106001-00032, 11427788.
31. Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Report. 2008, 683. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee.
32. Myers J, Kaykha A, George S, Abella J, Zaheer N, Lear S, Yamazaki T, Froelicher V. Fitness versus physical activity patterns in predicting mortality in men. Am J Med 2004, 117:912-918. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.06.047, 15629729.
33. Williams PT. Physical fitness and activity as separate heart disease risk factors: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:754-761. 2821586, 11323544.
34. Erikssen G. Physical fitness and changes in mortality: the survival of the fittest. Sports Med 2001, 31:571-576. 10.2165/00007256-200131080-00001, 11475318.
35. Erikssen G, Liestol K, Bjornholt J, Thaulow E, Sandvik L, Erikssen J. Changes in physical fitness and changes in mortality. Lancet 1998, 352:759-762. 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)02268-5, 9737279.
36. Blair SN, Kohl HW, Barlow CE, Paffenbarger RS, Gibbons LW, Macera CA. Changes in physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy and unhealthy men. JAMA 1995, 273:1093-1098. 10.1001/jama.273.14.1093, 7707596.
37. Bijnen FC, Feskens EJ, Caspersen CJ, Nagelkerke N, Mosterd WL, Kromhout D. Baseline and previous physical activity in relation to mortality in elderly men: the Zutphen Elderly Study. Am J Epidemiol 1999, 150:1289-1296.
38. Johansson SE, Sundquist J. Change in lifestyle factors and their influence on health status and all-cause mortality. Int J Epidemiol 1999, 28:1073-1080. 10.1093/ije/28.6.1073, 10661650.
39. Gregg EW, Cauley JA, Stone K, Thompson TJ, Bauer DC, Cummings SR, Ensrud KE. Relationship of changes in physical activity and mortality among older women. JAMA 2003, 289:2379-2386. 10.1001/jama.289.18.2379, 12746361.
40. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Walker M. Changes in physical activity, mortality, and incidence of coronary heart disease in older men. Lancet 1998, 351:1603-1608. 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)12355-8, 9620713.
41. Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M. Modifiable risk factors as predictors of all-cause mortality: the roles of genetics and childhood environment. Am J Epidemiol 2002, 156:985-993. 10.1093/aje/kwf151, 12446254.
42. Wessel TR, Arant CB, Olson MB, Johnson BD, Reis SE, Sharaf BL, Shaw LJ, Handberg E, Sopko G, Kelsey SF, Pepine CJ, Merz NB. Relationship of physical fitness vs body mass index with coronary artery disease and cardiovascular events in women. JAMA 2004, 292:1179-1187. 10.1001/jama.292.10.1179, 15353530.
43. Katzmarzyk PT, Church TS, Blair SN. Cardiorespiratory fitness attenuates the effects of the metabolic syndrome on all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in men. Arch Intern Med 2004, 164:1092-1097. 10.1001/archinte.164.10.1092, 15159266.
44. Morris JN, Heady JA. Mortality in relation to the physical activity of work: a preliminary note on experience in middle age. Br J Ind Med 1953, 10:245-254. 1037497, 13106231.
45. Morris JN, Heady JA, Raffle PA, Roberts CG, Parks JW. Coronary heart-disease and physical activity of work. Lancet 1953, 265:1111-1120. 10.1016/S0140-6736(53)91495-0, 13110075.
46. Paffenbarger RS, Brand RJ, Sholtz RI, Jung DL. Energy expenditure, cigarette smoking, and blood pressure level as related to death from specific diseases. Am J Epidemiol 1978, 108:12-18.
47. Paffenbarger RS, Hale WE. Work activity and coronary heart mortality. N Engl J Med 1975, 292:545-550.
48. United States Department of Health and Human Services Physical activity and health: a report of the Surgeon General 1996, Atlanta, G.A.: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, United States Department of Health and Human Services.
49. Booth FW, Gordon SE, Carlson CJ, Hamilton MT. Waging war on modern chronic diseases: primary prevention through exercise biology. J Appl Physiol 2000, 88:774-787.
50. Katzmarzyk PT, Gledhill N, Shephard RJ. The economic burden of physical inactivity in Canada. CMAJ 2000, 163:1435-1440. 80410, 11192648.
51. Oguma Y, Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS, Lee IM. Physical activity and all cause mortality in women: a review of the evidence. Br J Sports Med 2002, 36:162-172. 10.1136/bjsm.36.3.162, 1724493, 12055109.
52. Katzmarzyk P. Physical Activity Status and Chronic Diseases. ACSM's Resource Manual for Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription 2005, 122-135. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Kohl HW, 5.
53. Statistics Canada Deaths, 2002. 2004, Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Statistics Canada., http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/040927/d040927a.htm
54. World Health Organization The World Health Report: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. 2002, Geneva: World Health Organization, World Health Organization.
55. Emberson JR, Whincup PH, Morris RW, Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG. Lifestyle and cardiovascular disease in middle-aged British men: the effect of adjusting for within-person variation. Eur Heart J 2005, 26:1774-1782. 10.1093/eurheartj/ehi224, 15821008.
56. Manson JE, Greenland P, LaCroix AZ, Stefanick ML, Mouton CP, Oberman A, Perri MG, Sheps DS, Pettinger MB, Siscovick DS. Walking compared with vigorous exercise for the prevention of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med 2002, 347:716-725. 10.1056/NEJMoa021067, 12213942.
57. Oguma Y, Shinoda-Tagawa T. Physical activity decreases cardiovascular disease risk in women: review and meta-analysis. Am J Prev Med 2004, 26:407-418. 10.1016/j.amepre.2004.02.007, 15165657.
58. Wisloff U, Nilsen TI, Droyvold WB, Morkved S, Slordahl SA, Vatten LJ. A single weekly bout of exercise may reduce cardiovascular mortality: how little pain for cardiac gain? 'The HUNT study, Norway'. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2006, 13:798-804. 10.1097/01.hjr.0000216548.84560.ac, 17001221.
59. Lee IM, Rexrode KM, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE. Physical activity and coronary heart disease in women: is "no pain, no gain" passe?. JAMA 2001, 285:1447-1454. 10.1001/jama.285.11.1447, 11255420.
60. Berlin JA, Colditz GA. A meta-analysis of physical activity in the prevention of coronary heart disease. Am J Epidemiol 1990, 132:612-628.
61. Bauman AE. Updating the evidence that physical activity is good for health: an epidemiological review 2000-2003. J Sci Med Sport 2004, 7:6-19. 10.1016/S1440-2440(04)80273-1, 15214597.
62. Kohl HW. Physical activity and cardiovascular disease: evidence for a dose response. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:S472-483. discussion S493-474, 10.1097/00005768-200105001-01015, 11427773.
63. Paffenbarger RS, Hyde RT, Wing AL, Hsieh CC. Physical activity, all-cause mortality, and longevity of college alumni. N Engl J Med 1986, 314:605-613.
64. Schnohr P, Scharling H, Jensen JS. Intensity versus duration of walking, impact on mortality: the Copenhagen City Heart Study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2007, 14:72-78. 10.1097/HJR.0b013e3280144470, 17301630.
65. Kushi LH, Fee RM, Folsom AR, Mink PJ, Anderson KE, Sellers TA. Physical activity and mortality in postmenopausal women. JAMA 1997, 277:1287-1292. 10.1001/jama.277.16.1287, 9109466.
66. Leon AS, Connett J, Jacobs DR, Rauramaa R. Leisure-time physical activity levels and risk of coronary heart disease and death. The Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. JAMA 1987, 258:2388-2395. 10.1001/jama.258.17.2388, 3669210.
67. Paffenbarger RS, Hyde RT, Wing AL, Lee IM, Jung DL, Kampert JB. The association of changes in physical-activity level and other lifestyle characteristics with mortality among men. N Engl J Med 1993, 328:538-545. 10.1056/NEJM199302253280804, 8426621.
68. Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada Press Releases - Canadian leads effort to raise awareness of stroke as a global health epidemic. 2007, Ottawa: Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada.
69. Abbott RD, Curb JD, Rodriguez BL, Masaki KH, Popper JS, Ross GW, Petrovitch H. Age-related changes in risk factor effects on the incidence of thromboembolic and hemorrhagic stroke. J Clin Epidemiol 2003, 56:479-486. 10.1016/S0895-4356(02)00611-X, 12812823.
70. Gillum RF, Mussolino ME, Ingram DD. Physical activity and stroke incidence in women and men. The NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Am J Epidemiol 1996, 143:860-869.
71. Lee CD, Blair SN. Cardiorespiratory fitness and stroke mortality in men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002, 34:592-595. 10.1097/00005768-200205001-01747, 11932565.
72. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Rexrode KM, Willett WC, Manson JE. Physical activity and risk of stroke in women. JAMA 2000, 283:2961-2967. 10.1001/jama.283.22.2961, 10865274.
73. Lee IM, Paffenbarger RS. Physical activity and stroke incidence: the Harvard Alumni Health Study. Stroke 1998, 29:2049-2054.
74. Lee IM, Hennekens CH, Berger K, Buring JE, Manson JE. Exercise and risk of stroke in male physicians. Stroke 1999, 30:1-6.
75. Rankinen T, Church TS, Rice T, Bouchard C, Blair SN. Cardiorespiratory fitness, BMI, and risk of hypertension: the HYPGENE study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007, 39:1687-1692. 10.1249/mss.0b013e31812e527f, 17909393.
76. Pereira MA, Folsom AR, McGovern PG, Carpenter M, Arnett DK, Liao D, Szklo M, Hutchinson RG. Physical activity and incident hypertension in black and white adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Prev Med 1999, 28:304-312. 10.1006/pmed.1998.0431, 10072750.
77. Haapanen N, Miilunpalo S, Vuori I, Oja P, Pasanen M. Association of leisure time physical activity with the risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension and diabetes in middle-aged men and women. Int J Epidemiol 1997, 26:739-747. 10.1093/ije/26.4.739, 9279605.
78. Paffenbarger RS, Wing AL, Hyde RT, Jung DL. Physical activity and incidence of hypertension in college alumni. Am J Epidemiol 1983, 117:245-257.
79. Paffenbarger RS, Lee IM. Intensity of physical activity related to incidence of hypertension and all-cause mortality: an epidemiological view. Blood Press Monit 1997, 2:115-123.
80. Hernelahti M, Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Sarna S. Long-term vigorous training in young adulthood and later physical activity as predictors of hypertension in middle-aged and older men. Int J Sports Med 2002, 23:178-182. 10.1055/s-2002-23176, 11914980.
81. Hu G, Barengo NC, Tuomilehto J, Lakka TA, Nissinen A, Jousilahti P. Relationship of physical activity and body mass index to the risk of hypertension: a prospective study in Finland. Hypertension 2004, 43:25-30. 10.1161/01.HYP.0000107400.72456.19, 14656958.
82. Gu D, Wildman RP, Wu X, Reynolds K, Huang J, Chen CS, He J. Incidence and predictors of hypertension over 8 years among Chinese men and women. J Hypertens 2007, 25:517-523. 10.1097/HJH.0b013e328013e7f4, 17278966.
83. Hayashi T, Tsumura K, Suematsu C, Okada K, Fujii S, Endo G. Walking to work and the risk for hypertension in men: the Osaka Health Survey. Ann Intern Med 1999, 131:21-26.
84. Nakanishi N, Suzuki K. Daily life activity and the risk of developing hypertension in middle-aged Japanese men. Arch Intern Med 2005, 165:214-220. 10.1001/archinte.165.2.214, 15668369.
85. Foy CG, Foley KL, D'Agostino RB, Goff DC, Mayer-Davis E, Wagenknecht LE. Physical activity, insulin sensitivity, and hypertension among US adults: findings from the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Am J Epidemiol 2006, 163:921-928. 10.1093/aje/kwj113, 16554349.
86. Haennel RG, Lemire F. Physical activity to prevent cardiovascular disease. How much is enough?. Can Fam Physician 2002, 48:65-71. 2213927, 11852614.
87. Fagard RH. Exercise characteristics and the blood pressure response to dynamic physical training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:S484-492. discussion S493-484, 10.1097/00005768-200106001-00018, 11427774.
88. Pescatello LS, Franklin BA, Fagard R, Farquhar WB, Kelley GA, Ray CA. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and hypertension. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004, 36:533-553. 10.1249/01.MSS.0000115224.88514.3A, 15076798.
89. Cornelissen VA, Fagard RH. Effect of resistance training on resting blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens 2005, 23:251-259. 10.1097/00004872-200502000-00003, 15662209.
90. National Center for Health Statistics Fast Stats: Hypertension. 2008, Hyattsville, MD: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics.
91. Statistics Canada CANSIM. 2007, Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Statistics Canada.
92. McAlister FA, Wooltorton E, Campbell NR. The Canadian Hypertension Education Program (CHEP) recommendations: launching a new series. CMAJ 2005, 173:508-509. 1188189, 16129873.
93. Joffres MR, Ghadirian P, Fodor JG, Petrasovits A, Chockalingam A, Hamet P. Awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in Canada. Am J Hypertens 1997, 10:1097-1102. 10.1016/S0895-7061(97)00224-0, 9370379.
94. Fagard RH. Physical activity in the prevention and treatment of hypertension in the obese. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999, 31:S624-630. 10.1097/00005768-199911001-00022, 10593538.
95. Kelley GA. Aerobic exercise and resting blood pressure among women: a metaanalysis. Prev Med 1999, 28:264-275. 10.1006/pmed.1998.0417, 10072745.
96. Whelton SP, Chin A, Xin X, He J. Effect of aerobic exercise on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Ann Intern Med 2002, 136:493-503.
97. Dickinson HO, Mason JM, Nicolson DJ, Campbell F, Beyer FR, Cook JV, Williams B, Ford GA. Lifestyle interventions to reduce raised blood pressure: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens 2006, 24:215-233. 10.1097/01.hjh.0000199800.72563.26, 16508562.
98. Hamer M, Taylor A, Steptoe A. The effect of acute aerobic exercise on stress related blood pressure responses: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biol Psychol 2006, 71:183-190. 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.04.004, 15979232.
99. Fagard RH, Cornelissen VA. Effect of exercise on blood pressure control in hypertensive patients. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2007, 14:12-17. 10.1097/HJR.0b013e3280128bbb, 17301622.
100. Fagard RH. Exercise is good for your blood pressure: effects of endurance training and resistance training. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2006, 33:853-856. 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2006.04453.x, 16922820.
101. Fagard RH. Effects of exercise, diet and their combination on blood pressure. J Hum Hypertens 2005, 19(Suppl 3):S20-24. 10.1038/sj.jhh.1001956, 16302006.
102. Cornelissen VA, Fagard RH. Effects of endurance training on blood pressure, blood pressure-regulating mechanisms, and cardiovascular risk factors. Hypertension 2005, 46:667-675. 10.1161/01.HYP.0000184225.05629.51, 16157788.
103. Thompson PD, Crouse SF, Goodpaster B, Kelley D, Moyna N, Pescatello L. The acute versus the chronic response to exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:S438-445. discussion S452-433, 10.1097/00005768-200106001-00012, 11427768.
104. Monninkhof EM, Elias SG, Vlems FA, Tweel I, Schuit AJ, Voskuil DW, van Leeuwen FE. Physical activity and breast cancer: a systematic review. Epidemiology 2007, 18:137-157. 10.1097/01.ede.0000251167.75581.98, 17130685.
105. Lee IM. Physical activity and cancer prevention--data from epidemiologic studies. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003, 35:1823-1827. 10.1249/01.MSS.0000093620.27893.23, 14600545.
106. Rockhill B, Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Manson JE, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA. A prospective study of recreational physical activity and breast cancer risk. Arch Intern Med 1999, 159:2290-2296. 10.1001/archinte.159.19.2290, 10547168.
107. Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS, Lee IM. Physical activity and breast cancer risk in the College Alumni Health Study (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1998, 9:433-439. 10.1023/A:1008827903302, 9794176.
108. Shephard RJ, Futcher R. Physical activity and cancer: how may protection be maximized?. Crit Rev Oncog 1997, 8:219-272.
109. Thune I, Furberg AS. Physical activity and cancer risk: dose-response and cancer, all sites and site-specific. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:S530-550. discussion S609-510, 10.1097/00005768-200106001-00025, 11427781.
110. Cust AE, Armstrong BK, Friedenreich CM, Slimani N, Bauman A. Physical activity and endometrial cancer risk: a review of the current evidence, biologic mechanisms and the quality of physical activity assessment methods. Cancer Causes Control 2007, 18:243-58. 10.1007/s10552-006-0094-7, 17206535.
111. Hu FB, Li TY, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Manson JE. Television watching and other sedentary behaviors in relation to risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA 2003, 289:1785-1791. 10.1001/jama.289.14.1785, 12684356.
112. Manson JE, Nathan DM, Krolewski AS, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hennekens CH. A prospective study of exercise and incidence of diabetes among US male physicians. JAMA 1992, 268:63-67. 10.1001/jama.268.1.63, 1608115.
113. Lynch J, Helmrich SP, Lakka TA, Kaplan GA, Cohen RD, Salonen R, Salonen JT. Moderately intense physical activities and high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness reduce the risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in middle-aged men. Arch Intern Med 1996, 156:1307-1314. 10.1001/archinte.156.12.1307, 8651839.
114. Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz G, Liu S, Solomon CG, Willett WC. Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:790-797. 10.1056/NEJMoa010492, 11556298.
115. Schulze MB, Hu FB. Primary prevention of diabetes: what can be done and how much can be prevented?. Annu Rev Public Health 2005, 26:445-467. 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144532, 15760297.
116. Sato KK, Hayashi T, Kambe H, Nakamura Y, Harita N, Endo G, Yoneda T. Walking to work is an independent predictor of incidence of type 2 diabetes in Japanese men: the Kansai Healthcare Study. Diabetes Care 2007, 30:2296-2298. 10.2337/dc07-0090, 17536075.
117. Hu G, Qiao Q, Silventoinen K, Eriksson JG, Jousilahti P, Lindstrom J, Valle TT, Nissinen A, Tuomilehto J. Occupational, commuting, and leisure-time physical activity in relation to risk for Type 2 diabetes in middle-aged Finnish men and women. Diabetologia 2003, 46:322-329.
118. Hsia J, Wu L, Allen C, Oberman A, Lawson WE, Torrens J, Safford M, Limacher MC, Howard BV. Physical activity and diabetes risk in postmenopausal women. Am J Prev Med 2005, 28:19-25. 10.1016/j.amepre.2004.09.012, 15626551.
119. Folsom AR, Kushi LH, Hong CP. Physical activity and incident diabetes mellitus in postmenopausal women. Am J Public Health 2000, 90:134-138. 10.2105/AJPH.90.1.134, 1446129, 10630154.
120. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Alberti KG. Physical activity, metabolic factors, and the incidence of coronary heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Arch Intern Med 2000, 160:2108-2116. 10.1001/archinte.160.14.2108, 10904453.
121. Manson JE, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Krolewski AS, Rosner B, Hennekens CH, Speizer FE. Physical activity and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. Lancet 1991, 338:774-778. 10.1016/0140-6736(91)90664-B, 1681160.
122. Helmrich SP, Ragland DR, Paffenbarger RS. Prevention of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus with physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994, 26:824-830.
123. Helmrich SP, Ragland DR, Leung RW, Paffenbarger RS. Physical activity and reduced occurrence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1991, 325:147-152.
124. Wei M, Gibbons LW, Mitchell TL, Kampert JB, Lee CD, Blair SN. The association between cardiorespiratory fitness and impaired fasting glucose and type 2 diabetes mellitus in men. Ann Intern Med 1999, 130:89-96.
125. Eriksson J, Tuominen J, Valle T, Sundberg S, Sovijarvi A, Lindholm H, Tuomilehto J, Koivisto V. Aerobic endurance exercise or circuit-type resistance training for individuals with impaired glucose tolerance?. Horm Metab Res 1998, 30:37-41. 10.1055/s-2007-978828, 9503037.
126. Katzmarzyk PT, Craig CL, Gauvin L. Adiposity, physical fitness and incident diabetes: the physical activity longitudinal study. Diabetologia 2007, 50:538-544. 10.1007/s00125-006-0554-3, 17221212.
127. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, Nathan DM. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002, 346:393-403. 10.1056/NEJMoa012512, 1370926, 11832527.
128. Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson JG, Valle TT, Hamalainen H, Ilanne-Parikka P, Keinanen-Kiukaanniemi S, Laakso M, Louheranta A, Rastas M, Salminen V, Uusitupa M. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2001, 344:1343-1350. 10.1056/NEJM200105033441801, 11333990.
129. Williamson DF, Vinicor F, Bowman BA. Primary prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by lifestyle intervention: implications for health policy. Ann Intern Med 2004, 140:951-957.
130. Wolff I, van Croonenborg JJ, Kemper HC, Kostense PJ, Twisk JW. The effect of exercise training programs on bone mass: a meta-analysis of published controlled trials in pre- and postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 1999, 9:1-12. 10.1007/s001980050109, 10367023.
131. Berard A, Bravo G, Gauthier P. Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of physical activity for the prevention of bone loss in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 1997, 7:331-337. 10.1007/BF01623773, 9373566.
132. Kelley GA. Exercise and regional bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: a meta-analytic review of randomized trials. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1998, 77:76-87. 10.1097/00002060-199801000-00018, 9482383.
133. Kelley GA. Aerobic exercise and bone density at the hip in postmenopausal women: a meta-analysis. Prev Med 1998, 27:798-807. 10.1006/pmed.1998.0360, 9922061.
134. Kelley GA, Kelley KS. Efficacy of resistance exercise on lumbar spine and femoral neck bone mineral density in premenopausal women: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2004, 13:293-300. 10.1089/154099904323016455, 15130258.
135. Bonaiuti D, Shea B, Iovine R, Negrini S, Robinson V, Kemper HC, Wells G, Tugwell P, Cranney A. Exercise for preventing and treating osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002, CD000333.
136. Brown JP, Josse RG. 2002 clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis in Canada. CMAJ 2002, 167:S1-34. 134653, 12427685.
137. Wallace BA, Cumming RG. Systematic review of randomized trials of the effect of exercise on bone mass in pre- and postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int 2000, 67:10-18. 10.1007/s00223001089, 10908406.
138. Tinetti ME, Baker DI, McAvay G, Claus EB, Garrett P, Gottschalk M, Koch ML, Trainor K, Horwitz RI. A multifactorial intervention to reduce the risk of falling among elderly people living in the community. N Engl J Med 1994, 331:821-827. 10.1056/NEJM199409293311301, 8078528.
139. Wolf SL, Barnhart HX, Kutner NG, McNeely E, Coogler C, Xu T. Reducing frailty and falls in older persons: an investigation of Tai Chi and computerized balance training. Atlanta FICSIT Group. Frailty and Injuries: Cooperative Studies of Intervention Techniques. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996, 44:489-497.
140. Carter ND, Khan KM, Petit MA, Heinonen A, Waterman C, Donaldson MG, Janssen PA, Mallinson A, Riddell L, Kruse K, Prior JC, Flicker L, McKay HA. Results of a 10 week community based strength and balance training programme to reduce fall risk factors: a randomised controlled trial in 65-75 year old women with osteoporosis. Br J Sports Med 2001, 35:348-351. 10.1136/bjsm.35.5.348, 1724401, 11579072.
141. Liu-Ambrose T, Khan KM, Eng JJ, Janssen PA, Lord SR, McKay HA. Resistance and agility training reduce fall risk in women aged 75 to 85 with low bone mass: a 6- month randomized, controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004, 52:657-665. 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52200.x, 15086643.
142. Shaw JM, Snow CM. Weighted vest exercise improves indices of fall risk in older women. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1998, 53:M53-58.
143. Gregg EW, Pereira MA, Caspersen CJ. Physical activity, falls, and fractures among older adults: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000, 48:883-893.
144. Stevens JA, Powell KE, Smith SM, Wingo PA, Sattin RW. Physical activity, functional limitations, and the risk of fall-related fractures in community-dwelling elderly. Ann Epidemiol 1997, 7:54-61. 10.1016/S1047-2797(96)00110-X, 9034407.
145. Carter ND, Kannus P, Khan KM. Exercise in the prevention of falls in older people: a systematic literature review examining the rationale and the evidence. Sports Med 2001, 31:427-438. 10.2165/00007256-200131060-00003, 11394562.
146. Boyce WJ, Vessey MP. Habitual physical inertia and other factors in relation to risk of fracture of the proximal femur. Age Ageing 1988, 17:319-327. 10.1093/ageing/17.5.319, 3232586.
147. Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Kannus P, Sarna S, Koskenvuo M. Physical activity and osteoporotic hip fracture risk in men. Arch Intern Med 2000, 160:705-708. 10.1001/archinte.160.5.705, 10724057.
148. Joakimsen RM, Fonnebo V, Magnus JH, Stormer J, Tollan A, Sogaard AJ. The Tromso Study: physical activity and the incidence of fractures in a middle-aged population. J Bone Miner Res 1998, 13:1149-1157. 10.1359/jbmr.1998.13.7.1149, 9661079.
149. Feskanich D, Willett W, Colditz G. Walking and leisure-time activity and risk of hip fracture in postmenopausal women. JAMA 2002, 288:2300-2306. 10.1001/jama.288.18.2300, 12425707.
150. Robitaille J, Yoon PW, Moore CA, Liu T, Irizarry-Delacruz M, Looker AC, Khoury MJ. Prevalence, family history, and prevention of reported osteoporosis in U.S. women. Am J Prev Med 2008, 35:47-54. 10.1016/j.amepre.2008.03.027, 18541176.
151. Keramat A, Patwardhan B, Larijani B, Chopra A, Mithal A, Chakravarty D, Adibi H, Khosravi A. The assessment of osteoporosis risk factors in Iranian women compared with Indian women. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2008, 9:28. 10.1186/1471-2474-9-28, 2289820, 18304358.
152. Kerr D, Morton A, Dick I, Prince R. Exercise effects on bone mass in postmenopausal women are site-specific and load-dependent. J Bone Miner Res 1996, 11:218-225. 10.1002/jbmr.5650110211, 8822346.
153. Rantanen T, Masaki K, Foley D, Izmirlian G, White L, Guralnik JM. Grip strength changes over 27 yr in Japanese-American men. J Appl Physiol 1998, 85:2047-2053.
154. Katzmarzyk PT, Craig CL. Musculoskeletal fitness and risk of mortality. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002, 34:740-744. 10.1097/00005768-200205001-01269, 11984288.
155. Metter EJ, Talbot LA, Schrager M, Conwit R. Skeletal muscle strength as a predictor of all-cause mortality in healthy men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2002, 57:B359-365.
156. Fujita Y, Nakamura Y, Hiraoka J, Kobayashi K, Sakata K, Nagai M, Yanagawa H. Physical-strength tests and mortality among visitors to health- promotion centers in Japan. J Clin Epidemiol 1995, 48:1349-1359. 10.1016/0895-4356(95)00533-1, 7490598.
157. Brill PA, Macera CA, Davis DR, Blair SN, Gordon N. Muscular strength and physical function. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000, 32:412-416. 10.1097/00005768-200002000-00023, 10694125.
158. Mason C, Brien SE, Craig CL, Gauvin L, Katzmarzyk PT. Musculoskeletal fitness and weight gain in Canada. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007, 39:38-43.
159. Blair SN, LaMonte MJ, Nichaman MZ. The evolution of physical activity recommendations: how much is enough?. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 79:913S-920S.
160. Paterson DH, Warburton DER. Physical activity and functional limitations in older adults: a systematic review related to Canada's Physical Activity Guidelines. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2010, 7:38.
161. Stephenson JB, Armstrong A, Smith T, Bellew B. The costs of illness attributable to physical inactivity in Australia: A preliminary study. Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care and the Australian Sports Commission 2000, http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/Publishing.nsf/Content/health-pub hlth-publicatdocument-phys_costofillness-cnt.htm/$FILE/phys_costo fillness.pdf
162. Colditz GA. Economic costs of obesity and inactivity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999, 31:S663-667. 10.1097/00005768-199911001-00026, 10593542.
163. Andersen LB, Schnohr P, Schroll M, Hein HO. All-cause mortality associated with physical activity during leisure time, work, sports, and cycling to work. Arch Intern Med 2000, 160:1621-1628. 10.1001/archinte.160.11.1621, 10847255.
164. Barengo NC, Hu G, Lakka TA, Pekkarinen H, Nissinen A, Tuomilehto J. Low physical activity as a predictor for total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men and women in Finland. Eur Heart J 2004, 25:2204-2211. 10.1016/j.ehj.2004.10.009, 15589637.
165. Bath PA. Differences between older men and women in the self-rated healthmortality relationship. Gerontologist 2003, 43:387-395. discussion 372-385.
166. Bijnen FC, Caspersen CJ, Feskens EJ, Saris WH, Mosterd WL, Kromhout D. Physical activity and 10-year mortality from cardiovascular diseases and all causes: The Zutphen Elderly Study. Arch Intern Med 1998, 158:1499-1505. 10.1001/archinte.158.14.1499, 9679790.
167. Blair SN, Kohl HW, Barlow CE. Physical activity, physical fitness, and all-cause mortality in women: do women need to be active?. J Am Coll Nut 1993, 12:368-371.
168. Blair SN, Kampert JB, Kohl HW, Barlow CE, Macera CA, Paffenbarger RS, Gibbons LW. Influences of cardiorespiratory fitness and other precursors on cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in men and women. JAMA 1996, 276:205-210. 10.1001/jama.276.3.205, 8667564.
169. Boyle PA, Buchman AS, Wilson RS, Bienias JL, Bennett DA. Physical activity is associated with incident disability in community-based older persons. J Am Geriatr Soc 2007, 55:195-201. 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01038.x, 17302655.
170. Bucksch J. Physical activity of moderate intensity in leisure time and the risk of all cause mortality. Br J Sports Med 2005, 39:632-638. 10.1136/bjsm.2004.015768, 1725317, 16118301.
171. Bucksch J, Helmert U. Leisure time sports activity and all-cause-mortality in West-Germany (1984-1998). Z Gesundheitswiss 2004, 12:351-358.
172. Carlsson S, Andersson T, Wolk A, Ahlbom A. Low physical activity and mortality in women: baseline lifestyle and health as alternative explanations. Scand J Public Health 2006, 34:480-487. 10.1080/14034940600551293, 16990159.
173. Crespo CJ, Palmieri MR, Perdomo RP, McGee DL, Smit E, Sempos CT, Lee IM, Sorlie PD. The relationship of physical activity and body weight with all-cause mortality: results from the Puerto Rico Heart Health Program. Ann Epidemiol 2002, 12:543-552. 10.1016/S1047-2797(01)00296-4, 12495827.
174. Davey Smith G, Shipley MJ, Batty GD, Morris JN, Marmot M. Physical activity and cause-specific mortality in the Whitehall study. Public Health 2000, 114:308-315. 10.1038/sj.ph.1900675, 11035446.
175. Eaton CB, Medalie JH, Flocke SA, Zyzanski SJ, Yaari S, Goldbourt U. Self-reported physical activity predicts long-term coronary heart disease and all-cause mortalities. Twenty-one-year follow-up of the Israeli Ischemic Heart Disease Study. Arch Fam Med 1995, 4:323-329. 10.1001/archfami.4.4.323, 7711918.
176. Fang J, Wylie-Rosett J, Alderman MH. Exercise and cardiovascular outcomes by hypertensive status: NHANES I epidemiological follow-up study, 1971-1992. Am J Hypertens 2005, 18:751-758. 10.1016/j.amjhyper.2004.12.020, 15925731.
177. Fried LP, Kronmal RA, Newman AB, Bild DE, Mittelmark MB, Polak JF, Robbins JA, Gardin JM. Risk factors for 5-year mortality in older adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study. JAMA 1998, 279:585-592. 10.1001/jama.279.8.585, 9486752.
178. Fujita K, Takahashi H, Miura C, Ohkubo T, Sato Y, Ugajin T, Kurashima K, Tsubono Y, Tsuji I, Fukao A, Hisamichi S. Walking and mortality in Japan: the Miyagi Cohort Study. J Epidemiol 2004, 14(Suppl 1):S26-32. 10.2188/jea.14.S26, 15143875.
179. Glass TA, de Leon CM, Marottoli RA, Berkman LF. Population based study of social and productive activities as predictors of survival among elderly Americans. BMJ 1999, 319:478-483. 28199, 10454399.
180. Gulati M, Pandey DK, Arnsdorf MF, Lauderdale DS, Thisted RA, Wicklund RH, Al-Hani AJ, Black HR. Exercise capacity and the risk of death in women: the St James Women Take Heart Project. Circulation 2003, 108:1554-1559. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000091080.57509.E9, 12975254.
181. Haapanen N, Miilunpalo S, Vuori I, Oja P, Pasanen M. Characteristics of leisure time physical activity associated with decreased risk of premature all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men. Am J Epidemiol 1996, 143:870-880.
182. Hakim AA, Petrovitch H, Burchfiel CM, Ross GW, Rodriguez BL, White LR, Yano K, Curb JD, Abbott RD. Effects of walking on mortality among nonsmoking retired men. N Engl J Med 1998, 338:94-99. 10.1056/NEJM199801083380204, 9420340.
183. Hillsdon M, Thorogood M, Murphy M, Jones L. Can a simple measure of vigorous physical activity predict future mortality? Results from the OXCHECK study. Public Health Nutr 2004, 7:557-562. 10.1079/PHN2003548, 15153262.
184. Hu G, Tuomilehto J, Silventoinen K, Barengo NC, Peltonen M, Jousilahti P. The effects of physical activity and body mass index on cardiovascular, cancer and all-cause mortality among 47 212 middle-aged Finnish men and women. Int J Obes (Lond) 2005, 29:894-902. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802870, 15724141.
185. Hu FB, Willett WC, Li T, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Manson JE. Adiposity as compared with physical activity in predicting mortality among women. N Engl J Med 2004, 351:2694-2703. 10.1056/NEJMoa042135, 15616204.
186. Kampert JB, Blair SN, Barlow CE, Kohl HW. Physical activity, physical fitness, and all-cause and cancer mortality: a prospective study of men and women. Ann Epidemiol 1996, 6:452-457. 10.1016/S1047-2797(96)00059-2, 8915477.
187. Kaplan GA, Strawbridge WJ, Cohen RD, Hungerford LR. Natural history of leisuretime physical activity and its correlates: associations with mortality from all causes and cardiovascular disease over 28 years. Am J Epidemiol 1996, 144:793-797.
188. Khaw KT, Jakes R, Bingham S, Welch A, Luben R, Day N, Wareham N. Work and leisure time physical activity assessed using a simple, pragmatic, validated questionnaire and incident cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in men and women: The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer in Norfolk prospective population study. Int J Epidemiol 2006, 35:1034-1043. 10.1093/ije/dyl079, 16709620.
189. Kohl HW, Nichaman MZ, Frankowski RF, Blair SN. Maximal exercise hemodynamics and risk of mortality in apparently healthy men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996, 28:601-609. 10.1097/00005768-199605000-00011, 9148091.
190. Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Sarna S, Koskenvuo M. Relationship of leisure-time physical activity and mortality: the Finnish twin cohort. JAMA 1998, 279:440-444. 10.1001/jama.279.6.440, 9466636.
191. LaCroix AZ, Leveille SG, Hecht JA, Grothaus LC, Wagner EH. Does walking decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease hospitalizations and death in older adults?. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996, 44:113-120.
192. Lam TH, Ho SY, Hedley AJ, Mak KH, Leung GM. Leisure time physical activity and mortality in Hong Kong: case-control study of all adult deaths in 1998. Ann Epidemiol 2004, 14:391-398. 10.1016/j.annepidem.2003.09.005, 15246327.
193. Lan TY, Chang HY, Tai TY. Relationship between components of leisure physical activity and mortality in Taiwanese older adults. Prev Med 2006, 43:36-41. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.03.016, 16678894.
194. Laukkanen JA, Lakka TA, Rauramaa R, Kuhanen R, Venalainen JM, Salonen R, Salonen JT. Cardiovascular fitness as a predictor of mortality in men. Arch Intern Med 2001, 161:825-831. 10.1001/archinte.161.6.825, 11268224.
195. Lee IM, Paffenbarger RS. Associations of light, moderate, and vigorous intensity physical activity with longevity. The Harvard Alumni Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 2000, 151:293-299.
196. Lee IM, Hsieh CC, Paffenbarger RS. Exercise intensity and longevity in men. The Harvard Alumni Health Study. JAMA 1995, 273:1179-1184. 10.1001/jama.273.15.1179, 7707624.
197. Lee IM, Sesso HD, Oguma Y, Paffenbarger RS. The "weekend warrior" and risk of mortality. Am J Epidemiol 2004, 160:636-641. 10.1093/aje/kwh274, 15383407.
198. Leitzmann MF, Park Y, Blair A, Ballard-Barbash R, Mouw T, Hollenbeck AR, Schatzkin A. Physical activity recommendations and decreased risk of mortality. Arch Intern Med 2007, 167:2453-2460. 10.1001/archinte.167.22.2453, 18071167.
199. Leon AS, Myers MJ, Connett J. Leisure time physical activity and the 16-year risks of mortality from coronary heart disease and all-causes in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT). Int J Sports Med 1997, 18(Suppl 3):S208-215. 10.1055/s-2007-972717, 9272851.
200. Lissner L, Bengtsson C, Bjorkelund C, Wedel H. Physical activity levels and changes in relation to longevity. A prospective study of Swedish women. Am J Epidemiol 1996, 143:54-62.
201. Manini TM, Everhart JE, Patel KV, Schoeller DA, Colbert LH, Visser M, Tylavsky F, Bauer DC, Goodpaster BH, Harris TB. Daily activity energy expenditure and mortality among older adults. JAMA 2006, 296:171-179. 10.1001/jama.296.2.171, 16835422.
202. Matthews CE, Jurj AL, Shu XO, Li HL, Yang G, Li Q, Gao YT, Zheng W. Influence of exercise, walking, cycling, and overall nonexercise physical activity on mortality in Chinese women. Am J Epidemiol 2007, 165:1343-1350. 10.1093/aje/kwm088, 17478434.
203. Menotti A, Seccareccia F. Physical activity at work and job responsibility as risk factors for fatal coronary heart disease and other causes of death. J Epidemiol Community Health 1985, 39:325-329. 10.1136/jech.39.4.325, 1052466, 4086963.
204. Mensink GB, Deketh M, Mul MD, Schuit AJ, Hoffmeister H. Physical activity and its association with cardiovascular risk factors and mortality. Epidemiology 1996, 7:391-397. 10.1097/00001648-199607000-00009, 8793365.
205. Morgan K, Clarke D. Customary physical activity and survival in later life: a study in Nottingham, UK. J Epidemiol Community Health 1997, 51:490-493. 10.1136/jech.51.5.490, 1060533, 9425457.
206. Myers J, Prakash M, Froelicher V, Do D, Partington S, Atwood JE. Exercise capacity and mortality among men referred for exercise testing. N Engl J Med 2002, 346:793-801. 10.1056/NEJMoa011858, 11893790.
207. Ostbye T, Taylor DH, Jung SH. A longitudinal study of the effects of tobacco smoking and other modifiable risk factors on ill health in middle-aged and old Americans: results from the Health and Retirement Study and Asset and Health Dynamics among the Oldest Old survey. Prev Med 2002, 34:334-345. 10.1006/pmed.2001.0991, 11902850.
208. Paffenbarger RS, Kampert JB, Lee IM, Hyde RT, Leung RW, Wing AL. Changes in physical activity and other lifeway patterns influencing longevity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994, 26:857-865.
209. Richardson CR, Kriska AM, Lantz PM, Hayward RA. Physical activity and mortality across cardiovascular disease risk groups. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004, 36:1923-1929. 10.1249/01.MSS.0000145443.02568.7A, 15514508.
210. Rockhill B, Willett WC, Manson JE, Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Hunter DJ, Colditz GA. Physical activity and mortality: a prospective study among women. Am J Public Health 2001, 91:578-583. 10.2105/AJPH.91.4.578, 1446638, 11291369.
211. Rosengren A, Wilhelmsen L. Physical activity protects against coronary death and deaths from all causes in middle-aged men. Evidence from a 20-year follow-up of the primary prevention study in Goteborg. Ann Epidemiol 1997, 7:69-75. 10.1016/S1047-2797(96)00106-8, 9034409.
212. Schnohr P, Scharling H, Jensen JS. Changes in leisure-time physical activity and risk of death: an observational study of 7,000 men and women. Am J Epidemiol 2003, 158:639-644. 10.1093/aje/kwg207, 14507599.
213. Schnohr C, Hojbjerre L, Riegels M, Ledet L, Larsen T, Schultz-Larsen K, Petersen L, Prescott E, Gronbaek M. Does educational level influence the effects of smoking, alcohol, physical activity, and obesity on mortality? A prospective population study. Scand J Public Health 2004, 32:250-256.
214. Schnohr P, Lange P, Scharling H, Jensen JS. Long-term physical activity in leisure time and mortality from coronary heart disease, stroke, respiratory diseases, and cancer. The Copenhagen City Heart Study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2006, 13:173-179. 10.1097/01.hjr.0000198923.80555.b7, 16575269.
215. Schooling CM, Lam TH, Li ZB, Ho SY, Chan WM, Ho KS, Tham MK, Cowling BJ, Leung GM. Obesity, physical activity, and mortality in a prospective chinese elderly cohort. Arch Intern Med 2006, 166:1498-1504. 10.1001/archinte.166.14.1498, 16864760.
216. Sundquist K, Qvist J, Sundquist J, Johansson SE. Frequent and occasional physical activity in the elderly: a 12-year follow-up study of mortality. Am J Prev Med 2004, 27:22-27. 10.1016/j.amepre.2004.03.011, 15212771.
217. Talbot LA, Morrell CH, Fleg JL, Metter EJ. Changes in leisure time physical activity and risk of all-cause mortality in men and women: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Prev Med 2007, 45:169-176. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.05.014, 17631385.
218. Trolle-Lagerros Y, Mucci LA, Kumle M, Braaten T, Weiderpass E, Hsieh CC, Sandin S, Lagiou P, Trichopoulos D, Lund E, Adami HO. Physical activity as a determinant of mortality in women. Epidemiology 2005, 16:780-785. 10.1097/01.ede.0000181312.35964.22, 16222168.
219. Villeneuve PJ, Morrison HI, Craig CL, Schaubel DE. Physical activity, physical fitness, and risk of dying. Epidemiology 1998, 9:626-631. 10.1097/00001648-199811000-00011, 9799172.
220. Weller I, Corey P. The impact of excluding non-leisure energy expenditure on the relation between physical activity and mortality in women. Epidemiology 1998, 9:632-635. 10.1097/00001648-199811000-00012, 9799173.
221. Yu S, Yarnell JW, Sweetnam PM, Murray L. What level of physical activity protects against premature cardiovascular death? The Caerphilly study. Heart 2003, 89:502-506. 10.1136/heart.89.5.502, 1767647, 12695452.
222. Altieri A, Tavani A, Gallus S, La Vecchia C. Occupational and leisure time physical activity and the risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Italy. Ann Epidemiol 2004, 14:461-466. 10.1016/j.annepidem.2003.11.005, 15301782.
223. Batty GD, Shipley MJ, Marmot MG, Smith GD. Leisure time physical activity and disease-specific mortality among men with chronic bronchitis: evidence from the Whitehall study. Am J Public Health 2003, 93:817-821. 10.2105/AJPH.93.5.817, 1447845, 12721150.
224. Chen J, Millar WJ. Health effects of physical activity. Health Rep 1999, 11. 21-30(Eng); 21-31(Fre).
225. Conroy MB, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE, Lee IM. Past physical activity, current physical activity, and risk of coronary heart disease. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005, 37:1251-1256. 10.1249/01.mss.0000174882.60971.7f, 16118569.
226. Dorn JP, Cerny FJ, Epstein LH, Naughton J, Vena JE, Winkelstein W, Schisterman E, Trevisan M. Work and leisure time physical activity and mortality in men and women from a general population sample. Ann Epidemiol 1999, 9:366-373. 10.1016/S1047-2797(99)00025-3, 10475536.
227. Folsom AR, Arnett DK, Hutchinson RG, Liao F, Clegg LX, Cooper LS. Physical activity and incidence of coronary heart disease in middle-aged women and men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997, 29:901-909.
228. Fransson E, de Faire U, Ahlbom A, Reuterwall C, Hallqvist J, Alfredsson L. The risk of acute myocardial infarction: interactions of types of physical activity. Epidemiology 2004, 15:573-582. 10.1097/01.ede.0000134865.74261.fe, 15308957.
229. Fransson E, de Faire U, Ahlbom A, Reuterwall C, Hallqvist J, Alfredsson L. The effect of leisure-time physical activity on the risk of acute myocardial infarction depending on body mass index: a population-based case-control study. BMC Public Health 2006, 6:296. 10.1186/1471-2458-6-296, 1712343, 17156418.
230. Haapanen-Niemi N, Miilunpalo S, Pasanen M, Vuori I, Oja P, Malmberg J. Body mass index, physical inactivity and low level of physical fitness as determinants of all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality--16 y follow-up of middle-aged and elderly men and women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000, 24:1465-1474. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801426, 11126344.
231. Kannel WB, Belanger A, D'Agostino R, Israel I. Physical activity and physical demand on the job and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: the Framingham Study. Am Heart J 1986, 112:820-825. 10.1016/0002-8703(86)90480-1, 3766383.
232. Kaprio J, Kujala UM, Koskenvuo M, Sarna S. Physical activity and other risk factors in male twin-pairs discordant for coronary heart disease. Atherosclerosis 2000, 150:193-200. 10.1016/S0021-9150(99)00368-8, 10781651.
233. Lakka TA, Venalainen JM, Rauramaa R, Salonen R, Tuomilehto J, Salonen JT. Relation of leisure-time physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness to the risk of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1994, 330:1549-1554. 10.1056/NEJM199406023302201, 8177243.
234. Laukkanen JA, Kurl S, Salonen R, Rauramaa R, Salonen JT. The predictive value of cardiorespiratory fitness for cardiovascular events in men with various risk profiles: a prospective population-based cohort study. Eur Heart J 2004, 25:1428-1437. 10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.013, 15321701.
235. Lee IM, Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS. Physical activity and coronary heart disease risk in men: does the duration of exercise episodes predict risk?. Circulation 2000, 102:981-986.
236. Lee IM, Sesso HD, Oguma Y, Paffenbarger RS. Relative intensity of physical activity and risk of coronary heart disease. Circulation 2003, 107:1110-1116. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000052626.63602.58, 12615787.
237. Lemaitre RN, Siscovick DS, Raghunathan TE, Weinmann S, Arbogast P, Lin DY. Leisure-time physical activity and the risk of primary cardiac arrest. Arch Intern Med 1999, 159:686-690. 10.1001/archinte.159.7.686, 10218747.
238. Lemaitre RN, Heckbert SR, Psaty BM, Siscovick DS. Leisure-time physical activity and the risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 1995, 155:2302-2308. 10.1001/archinte.155.21.2302, 7487254.
239. Li TY, Rana JS, Manson JE, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rexrode KM, Hu FB. Obesity as compared with physical activity in predicting risk of coronary heart disease in women. Circulation 2006, 113:499-506. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.574087, 16449729.
240. Lopes C, Santos AC, Azevedo A, Maciel MJ, Barros H. Physical activity and risk of myocardial infarction after the fourth decade of life. Rev Port Cardiol 2005, 24:1191-1207.
241. Lovasi GS, Lemaitre RN, Siscovick DS, Dublin S, Bis JC, Lumley T, Heckbert SR, Smith NL, Psaty BM. Amount of leisure-time physical activity and risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction. Ann Epidemiol 2007, 17:410-416. 10.1016/j.annepidem.2006.10.012, 17321755.
242. Manson JE, Hu FB, Rich-Edwards JW, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. A prospective study of walking as compared with vigorous exercise in the prevention of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med 1999, 341:650-658. 10.1056/NEJM199908263410904, 10460816.
243. Mora S, Cook N, Buring JE, Ridker PM, Lee IM. Physical activity and reduced risk of cardiovascular events: potential mediating mechanisms. Circulation 2007, 116:2110-2118. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.729939, 2117381, 17967770.
244. O'Connor GT, Hennekens CH, Willett WC, Goldhaber SZ, Paffenbarger RS, Breslow JL, Lee IM, Buring JE. Physical exercise and reduced risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction. Am J Epidemiol 1995, 142:1147-1156.
245. Rastogi T, Vaz M, Spiegelman D, Reddy KS, Bharathi AV, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Ascherio A. Physical activity and risk of coronary heart disease in India. Int J Epidemiol 2004, 33:759-767. 10.1093/ije/dyh042, 15044412.
246. Rodriguez BL, Curb JD, Burchfiel CM, Abbott RD, Petrovitch H, Masaki K, Chiu D. Physical activity and 23-year incidence of coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality among middle-aged men. The Honolulu Heart Program. Circulation 1994, 89:2540-2544.
247. Rothenbacher D, Hoffmeister A, Brenner H, Koenig W. Physical activity, coronary heart disease, and inflammatory response. Arch Intern Med 2003, 163:1200-1205. 10.1001/archinte.163.10.1200, 12767957.
248. Seccareccia F, Menotti A. Physical activity, physical fitness and mortality in a sample of middle aged men followed-up 25 years. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1992, 32:206-213.
249. Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS, Lee IM. Physical activity and coronary heart disease in men: The Harvard Alumni Health Study. Circulation 2000, 102:975-980.
250. Sundquist K, Qvist J, Johansson SE, Sundquist J. The long-term effect of physical activity on incidence of coronary heart disease: a 12-year follow-up study. Prev Med 2005, 41:219-225. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.09.043, 15917014.
251. Talbot LA, Morrell CH, Metter EJ, Fleg JL. Comparison of cardiorespiratory fitness versus leisure time physical activity as predictors of coronary events in men aged < or = 65 years and > 65 years. Am J Cardiol 2002, 89:1187-1192. 10.1016/S0002-9149(02)02302-0, 12008173.
252. Tanasescu M, Leitzmann MF, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB. Exercise type and intensity in relation to coronary heart disease in men. JAMA 2002, 288:1994-2000. 10.1001/jama.288.16.1994, 12387651.
253. Vatten LJ, Nilsen TI, Romundstad PR, Droyvold WB, Holmen J. Adiposity and physical activity as predictors of cardiovascular mortality. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2006, 13:909-915. 10.1097/01.hjr.0000239463.80390.52, 17143122.
254. Wagner A, Simon C, Evans A, Ferrieres J, Montaye M, Ducimetiere P, Arveiler D. Physical activity and coronary event incidence in Northern Ireland and France: the Prospective Epidemiological Study of Myocardial Infarction (PRIME). Circulation 2002, 105:2247-2252. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000016345.58696.4F, 12010905.
255. Agnarsson U, Thorgeirsson G, Sigvaldason H, Sigfusson N. Effects of leisure-time physical activity and ventilatory function on risk for stroke in men: the Reykjavik Study. Ann Intern Med 1999, 130:987-990.
256. Ellekjaer H, Holmen J, Ellekjaer E, Vatten L. Physical activity and stroke mortality in women. Ten-year follow-up of the Nord-Trondelag health survey, 1984-1986. Stroke 2000, 31:14-18.
257. Evenson KR, Rosamond WD, Cai J, Toole JF, Hutchinson RG, Shahar E, Folsom AR. Physical activity and ischemic stroke risk. The atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Stroke 1999, 30:1333-1339.
258. Haheim LL, Holme I, Hjermann I, Leren P. Risk factors of stroke incidence and mortality. A 12-year follow-up of the Oslo Study. Stroke 1993, 24:1484-1489.
259. Hu G, Sarti C, Jousilahti P, Silventoinen K, Barengo NC, Tuomilehto J. Leisure time, occupational, and commuting physical activity and the risk of stroke. Stroke 2005, 36:1994-1999. 10.1161/01.STR.0000177868.89946.0c, 16081862.
260. Kiely DK, Wolf PA, Cupples LA, Beiser AS, Kannel WB. Physical activity and stroke risk: the Framingham Study. Am J Epidemiol 1994, 140:608-620.
261. Krarup LH, Truelsen T, Pedersen A, Lerke H, Lindahl M, Hansen L, Schnohr P, Boysen G. Level of physical activity in the week preceding an ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2007, 24:296-300. 10.1159/000105683, 17646694.
262. Kurl S, Laukkanen JA, Rauramaa R, Lakka TA, Sivenius J, Salonen JT. Cardiorespiratory fitness and the risk for stroke in men. Arch Intern Med 2003, 163:1682-1688. 10.1001/archinte.163.14.1682, 12885683.
263. Myint PK, Luben RN, Wareham NJ, Welch AA, Bingham SA, Day NE, Khaw KT. Combined work and leisure physical activity and risk of stroke in men and women in the European prospective investigation into Cancer-Norfolk Prospective Population Study. Neuroepidemiology 2006, 27:122-129. 10.1159/000095551, 16946623.
264. Noda H, Iso H, Toyoshima H, Date C, Yamamoto A, Kikuchi S, Koizumi A, Kondo T, Watanabe Y, Wada Y, Inaba Y, Tamakoshi A. Walking and sports participation and mortality from coronary heart disease and stroke. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005, 46:1761-1767. 10.1016/j.jacc.2005.07.038, 16256882.
265. Paganini-Hill A, Perez Barreto M. Stroke risk in older men and women: aspirin, estrogen, exercise, vitamins, and other factors. J Gend Specif Med 2001, 4:18-28.
266. Pitsavos C, Panagiotakos DB, Chrysohoou C, Kokkinos P, Menotti A, Singh S, Dontas A. Physical activity decreases the risk of stroke in middle-age men with left ventricular hypertrophy: 40-year follow-up (1961-2001) of the Seven Countries Study (the Corfu cohort). J Hum Hypertens 2004, 18:495-501. 10.1038/sj.jhh.1001692, 14985777.
267. Sacco RL, Gan R, Boden-Albala B, Lin IF, Kargman DE, Hauser WA, Shea S, Paik MC. Leisure-time physical activity and ischemic stroke risk: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Stroke 1998, 29:380-387.
268. Simonsick EM, Lafferty ME, Phillips CL, Mendes de Leon CF, Kasl SV, Seeman TE, Fillenbaum G, Hebert P, Lemke JH. Risk due to inactivity in physically capable older adults. Am J Public Health 1993, 83:1443-1450. 10.2105/AJPH.83.10.1443, 1694862, 8214236.
269. Thrift AG, Donnan GA, McNeil JJ. Reduced risk of intracerebral hemorrhage with dynamic recreational exercise but not with heavy work activity. Stroke 2002, 33:559-564. 10.1161/hs0202.102878, 11823670.
270. Folsom AR, Prineas RJ, Kaye SA, Munger RG. Incidence of hypertension and stroke in relation to body fat distribution and other risk factors in older women. Stroke 1990, 21:701-706.
271. Levenstein S, Smith MW, Kaplan GA. Psychosocial predictors of hypertension in men and women. Arch Intern Med 2001, 161:1341-1346. 10.1001/archinte.161.10.1341, 11371264.
272. Hou L, Ji BT, Blair A, Dai Q, Gao YT, Chow WH. Commuting physical activity and risk of colon cancer in Shanghai, China. Am J Epidemiol 2004, 160:860-867. 10.1093/aje/kwh301, 15496538.
273. Boutron-Ruault MC, Senesse P, Meance S, Belghiti C, Faivre J. Energy intake, body mass index, physical activity, and the colorectal adenoma-carcinoma sequence. Nutr Cancer 2001, 39:50-57. 10.1207/S15327914nc391_7, 11588902.
274. Brownson RC, Chang JC, Davis JR, Smith CA. Physical activity on the job and cancer in Missouri. Am J Public Health 1991, 81:639-642. 10.2105/AJPH.81.5.639, 1405078, 2014869.
275. Calton BA, Lacey JV, Schatzkin A, Schairer C, Colbert LH, Albanes D, Leitzmann MF. Physical activity and the risk of colon cancer among women: a prospective cohort study (United States). Int J Cancer 2006, 119:385-391. 10.1002/ijc.21840, 16489545.
276. Chao A, Connell CJ, Jacobs EJ, McCullough ML, Patel AV, Calle EE, Cokkinides VE, Thun MJ. Amount, type, and timing of recreational physical activity in relation to colon and rectal cancer in older adults: the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004, 13:2187-2195.
277. Colbert LH, Hartman TJ, Malila N, Limburg PJ, Pietinen P, Virtamo J, Taylor PR, Albanes D. Physical activity in relation to cancer of the colon and rectum in a cohort of male smokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2001, 10:265-268.
278. Dosemeci M, Hayes RB, Vetter R, Hoover RN, Tucker M, Engin K, Unsal M, Blair A. Occupational physical activity, socioeconomic status, and risks of 15 cancer sites in Turkey. Cancer Causes Control 1993, 4:313-321. 10.1007/BF00051333, 8347780.
279. Friedenreich C, Norat T, Steindorf K, Boutron-Ruault MC, Pischon T, Mazuir M, Clavel-Chapelon F, Linseisen J, Boeing H, Bergman M, Johnsen NF, Tjonneland A, Overvad K, Mendez M, Quiros JR, Martinez C, Dorronsoro M, Navarro C, Gurrea AB, Bingham S, Khaw KT, Allen N, Key T, Trichopoulou A, Trichopoulos D, Orfanou N, Krogh V, Palli D, Tumino R, Panico S, Vineis P, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Peeters PH, Monninkhof E, Berglund G, Manjer J, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Kaaks R, Riboli E. Physical activity and risk of colon and rectal cancers: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006, 15:2398-2407. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0595, 17164362.
280. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Physical activity, obesity, and risk for colon cancer and adenoma in men. Ann Intern Med 1995, 122:327-334.
281. Isomura K, Kono S, Moore MA, Toyomura K, Nagano J, Mizoue T, Mibu R, Tanaka M, Kakeji Y, Maehara Y, Okamura T, Ikejiri K, Futami K, Yasunami Y, Maekawa T, Takenaka K, Ichimiya H, Imaizumi N. Physical activity and colorectal cancer: the Fukuoka Colorectal Cancer Study. Cancer Sci 2006, 97:1099-1104. 10.1111/j.1349-7006.2006.00282.x, 16918995.
282. Johnsen NF, Christensen J, Thomsen BL, Olsen A, Loft S, Overvad K, Tjonneland A. Physical activity and risk of colon cancer in a cohort of Danish middle-aged men and women. Eur J Epidemiol 2006, 21:877-884. 10.1007/s10654-006-9076-z, 17160429.
283. Larsen IK, Grotmol T, Almendingen K, Hoff G. Lifestyle as a predictor for colonic neoplasia in asymptomatic individuals. BMC Gastroenterol 2006, 6:5. 10.1186/1471-230X-6-5, 1374667, 16412216.
284. Larsson SC, Rutegard J, Bergkvist L, Wolk A. Physical activity, obesity, and risk of colon and rectal cancer in a cohort of Swedish men. Eur J Cancer 2006, 42:2590-2597. 10.1016/j.ejca.2006.04.015, 16914307.
285. Lee IM, Paffenbarger RS. Physical activity and its relation to cancer risk: a prospective study of college alumni. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994, 26:831-837.
286. Lee IM, Manson JE, Ajani U, Paffenbarger RS, Hennekens CH, Buring JE. Physical activity and risk of colon cancer: the Physicians' Health Study (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1997, 8:568-574. 10.1023/A:1018438228410, 9242472.
287. Lee KJ, Inoue M, Otani T, Iwasaki M, Sasazuki S, Tsugane S. Physical activity and risk of colorectal cancer in Japanese men and women: the Japan Public Health Center-based prospective study. Cancer Causes Control 2007, 18:199-209. 10.1007/s10552-006-0098-3, 17206529.
288. Longnecker MP, Gerhardsson le Verdier M, Frumkin H, Carpenter C. A case-control study of physical activity in relation to risk of cancer of the right colon and rectum in men. Int J Epidemiol 1995, 24:42-50. 10.1093/ije/24.1.42, 7797355.
289. Mai PL, Sullivan-Halley J, Ursin G, Stram DO, Deapen D, Villaluna D, Horn-Ross PL, Clarke CA, Reynolds P, Ross RK, West DW, Anton-Culver H, Ziogas A, Bernstein L. Physical activity and colon cancer risk among women in the California Teachers Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007, 16:517-525. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0747, 17372247.
290. Martinez ME, Giovannucci E, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Leisure-time physical activity, body size, and colon cancer in women. Nurses' Health Study Research Group. J Natl Cancer Inst 1997, 89:948-955. 10.1093/jnci/89.13.948, 9214674.
291. Nilsen TI, Romundstad PR, Petersen H, Gunnell D, Vatten LJ. Recreational physical activity and cancer risk in subsites of the colon (the Nord-Trondelag Health Study). Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008, 17:183-188. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-07-0746, 18199723.
292. Schnohr P, Gronbaek M, Petersen L, Hein HO, Sorensen TI. Physical activity in leisure-time and risk of cancer: 14-year follow-up of 28,000 Danish men and women. Scand J Public Health 2005, 33:244-249. 10.1080/14034940510005752, 16087486.
293. Slattery ML, Schumacher MC, Smith KR, West DW, Abd-Elghany N. Physical activity, diet, and risk of colon cancer in Utah. Am J Epidemiol 1988, 128:989-999.
294. Slattery ML, Edwards SL, Ma KN, Friedman GD, Potter JD. Physical activity and colon cancer: a public health perspective. Ann Epidemiol 1997, 7:137-145. 10.1016/S1047-2797(96)00129-9, 9099401.
295. Slattery ML, Potter J, Caan B, Edwards S, Coates A, Ma KN, Berry TD. Energy balance and colon cancer--beyond physical activity. Cancer Res 1997, 57:75-80.
296. Takahashi H, Kuriyama S, Tsubono Y, Nakaya N, Fujita K, Nishino Y, Shibuya D, Tsuji I. Time spent walking and risk of colorectal cancer in Japan: the Miyagi Cohort study. Eur J Cancer Prev 2007, 16:403-408. 10.1097/01.cej.0000236249.63489.05, 17923810.
297. Tang R, Wang JY, Lo SK, Hsieh LL. Physical activity, water intake and risk of colorectal cancer in Taiwan: a hospital-based case-control study. Int J Cancer 1999, 82:484-489. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19990812)82:4<484::AID-IJC3>3.0.CO;2-A, 10404059.
298. Tavani A, Braga C, La Vecchia C, Conti E, Filiberti R, Montella M, Amadori D, Russo A, Franceschi S. Physical activity and risk of cancers of the colon and rectum: an Italian case-control study. Br J Cancer 1999, 79:1912-1916. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6690304, 2362771, 10206313.
299. Thune I, Lund E. Physical activity and risk of colorectal cancer in men and women. Br J Cancer 1996, 73:1134-1140. 2074402, 8624277.
300. Vena JE, Graham S, Zielezny M, Swanson MK, Barnes RE, Nolan J. Lifetime occupational exercise and colon cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1985, 122:357-365.
301. Vetter R, Dosemeci M, Blair A, Wacholder S, Unsal M, Engin K, Fraumeni JF. Occupational physical activity and colon cancer risk in Turkey. Eur J Epidemiol 1992, 8:845-850. 10.1007/BF00145330, 1294390.
302. White E, Jacobs EJ, Daling JR. Physical activity in relation to colon cancer in middle-aged men and women. Am J Epidemiol 1996, 144:42-50.
303. Wolin KY, Lee IM, Colditz GA, Glynn RJ, Fuchs C, Giovannucci E. Leisure-time physical activity patterns and risk of colon cancer in women. Int J Cancer 2007, 121:2776-2781. 10.1002/ijc.23009, 2291204, 17722094.
304. Zhang Y, Cantor KP, Dosemeci M, Lynch CF, Zhu Y, Zheng T. Occupational and leisure-time physical activity and risk of colon cancer by subsite. J Occup Environ Med 2006, 48:236-243. 10.1097/01.jom.0000199521.72764.26, 16531827.
305. Bernstein L, Henderson BE, Hanisch R, Sullivan-Halley J, Ross RK. Physical exercise and reduced risk of breast cancer in young women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994, 86:1403-1408. 10.1093/jnci/86.18.1403, 8072034.
306. Bernstein L, Patel AV, Ursin G, Sullivan-Halley J, Press MF, Deapen D, Berlin JA, Daling JR, McDonald JA, Norman SA, Malone KE, Strom BL, Liff J, Folger SG, Simon MS, Burkman RT, Marchbanks PA, Weiss LK, Spirtas R. Lifetime recreational exercise activity and breast cancer risk among black women and white women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005, 97:1671-1679.
307. Carpenter CL, Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Bernstein L. Lifetime exercise activity and breast cancer risk among post-menopausal women. Br J Cancer 1999, 80:1852-1858. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6690610, 2374273, 10468309.
308. Carpenter CL, Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Bernstein L. Effect of family history, obesity and exercise on breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women. Int J Cancer 2003, 106:96-102. 10.1002/ijc.11186, 12794763.
309. Chang SC, Ziegler RG, Dunn B, Stolzenberg-Solomon R, Lacey JV, Huang WY, Schatzkin A, Reding D, Hoover RN, Hartge P, Leitzmann MF. Association of energy intake and energy balance with postmenopausal breast cancer in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006, 15:334-341. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0479, 16492925.
310. Colditz GA, Feskanich D, Chen WY, Hunter DJ, Willett WC. Physical activity and risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women. Br J Cancer 2003, 89:847-851. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6601175, 2394493, 12942116.
311. Coogan PF, Newcomb PA, Clapp RW, Trentham-Dietz A, Baron JA, Longnecker MP. Physical activity in usual occupation and risk of breast cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1997, 8:626-631. 10.1023/A:1018402615206, 9242479.
312. Coogan PF, Aschengrau A. Occupational physical activity and breast cancer risk in the upper Cape Cod cancer incidence study. Am J Ind Med 1999, 36:279-285. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0274(199908)36:2<279::AID-AJIM7>3.0.CO;2-7, 10398936.
313. Dallal CM, Sullivan-Halley J, Ross RK, Wang Y, Deapen D, Horn-Ross PL, Reynolds P, Stram DO, Clarke CA, Anton-Culver H, Ziogas A, Peel D, West DW, Wright W, Bernstein L. Long-term recreational physical activity and risk of invasive and in situ breast cancer: the California teachers study. Arch Intern Med 2007, 167:408-415. 10.1001/archinte.167.4.408, 17325304.
314. Dirx MJ, Voorrips LE, Goldbohm RA, Brandt PA. Baseline recreational physical activity, history of sports participation, and postmenopausal breast carcinoma risk in the Netherlands Cohort Study. Cancer 2001, 92:1638-1649. 10.1002/1097-0142(20010915)92:6<1638::AID-CNCR1490>3.0.CO;2-Q, 11745243.
315. Dorn J, Vena J, Brasure J, Freudenheim J, Graham S. Lifetime physical activity and breast cancer risk in pre- and postmenopausal women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003, 35:278-285. 10.1249/01.MSS.0000048835.59454.8D, 12569217.
316. Drake DA. A longitudinal study of physical activity and breast cancer prediction. Cancer Nurs 2001, 24:371-377. 10.1097/00002820-200110000-00008, 11605707.
317. Friedenreich CM, Bryant HE, Courneya KS. Case-control study of lifetime physical activity and breast cancer risk. Am J Epidemiol 2001, 154:336-347. 10.1093/aje/154.4.336, 11495857.
318. Friedenreich CM, Courneya KS, Bryant HE. Relation between intensity of physical activity and breast cancer risk reduction. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:1538-1545. 10.1097/00005768-200109000-00018, 11528344.
319. Friedenreich CM, Rohan TE. Physical activity and risk of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 1995, 4:145-151. 10.1097/00008469-199504000-00004, 7767240.
320. Gammon MD, Schoenberg JB, Britton JA, Kelsey JL, Coates RJ, Brogan D, Potischman N, Swanson CA, Daling JR, Stanford JL, Brinton LA. Recreational physical activity and breast cancer risk among women under age 45 years. Am J Epidemiol 1998, 147:273-280.
321. Gilliland FD, Li YF, Baumgartner K, Crumley D, Samet JM. Physical activity and breast cancer risk in hispanic and non-hispanic white women. Am J Epidemiol 2001, 154:442-450. 10.1093/aje/154.5.442, 11532786.
322. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Cocco P, Co Chien HT, Fraumeni JF. Risk factors for male breast cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1998, 9:269-275. 10.1023/A:1008869003012, 9684707.
323. Hu YH, Nagata C, Shimizu H, Kaneda N, Kashiki Y. Association of body mass index, physical activity, and reproductive histories with breast cancer: a case-control study in Gifu, Japan. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1997, 43:65-72. 10.1023/A:1005745824388, 9065600.
324. John EM, Horn-Ross PL, Koo J. Lifetime physical activity and breast cancer risk in a multiethnic population: the San Francisco Bay area breast cancer study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003, 12:1143-1152.
325. Kruk J. Lifetime physical activity and the risk of breast cancer: a case-control study. Cancer Detect Prev 2007, 31:18-28. 10.1016/j.cdp.2006.12.003, 17296272.
326. Kruk J. Leisure-time physical activity in relation to the risk of breast cancer. European Journal of Sports Science 2007, 7:81-91.
327. Lahmann PH, Friedenreich C, Schuit AJ, Salvini S, Allen NE, Key TJ, Khaw KT, Bingham S, Peeters PH, Monninkhof E, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Wirfalt E, Manjer J, Gonzales CA, Ardanaz E, Amiano P, Quiros JR, Navarro C, Martinez C, Berrino F, Palli D, Tumino R, Panico S, Vineis P, Trichopoulou A, Bamia C, Trichopoulos D, Boeing H, Schulz M, Linseisen J, Chang-Claude J, Chapelon FC, Fournier A, Boutron-Ruault MC, Tjonneland A, Fons Johnson N, Overvad K, Kaaks R, Riboli E. Physical activity and breast cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007, 16:36-42. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0582, 17179488.
328. Lee IM, Rexrode KM, Cook NR, Hennekens CH, Burin JE. Physical activity and breast cancer risk: the Women's Health Study (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2001, 12:137-145. 10.1023/A:1008948125076, 11246842.
329. Magnusson CM, Roddam AW, Pike MC, Chilvers C, Crossley B, Hermon C, McPherson K, Peto J, Vessey M, Beral V. Body fatness and physical activity at young ages and the risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women. Br J Cancer 2005, 93:817-824. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602758, 2361642, 16160699.
330. Malin A, Matthews CE, Shu XO, Cai H, Dai Q, Jin F, Gao YT, Zheng W. Energy balance and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005, 14:1496-1501. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-04-0880, 1592607, 15941962.
331. Margolis KL, Mucci L, Braaten T, Kumle M, Trolle Lagerros Y, Adami HO, Lund E, Weiderpass E. Physical activity in different periods of life and the risk of breast cancer: the Norwegian-Swedish Women's Lifestyle and Health cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005, 14:27-32.
332. McTiernan A, Stanford JL, Weiss NS, Daling JR, Voigt LF. Occurrence of breast cancer in relation to recreational exercise in women age 50-64 years. Epidemiology 1996, 7:598-604. 10.1097/00001648-199611000-00006, 8899385.
333. McTiernan A, Kooperberg C, White E, Wilcox S, Coates R, Adams-Campbell LL, Woods N, Ockene J. Recreational physical activity and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Cohort Study. JAMA 2003, 290:1331-1336. 10.1001/jama.290.10.1331, 12966124.
334. Silvera SA, Jain M, Howe GR, Miller AB, Rohan TE. Energy balance and breast cancer risk: a prospective cohort study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2006, 97:97-106. 10.1007/s10549-005-9098-3, 16319973.
335. Patel AV, Callel EE, Bernstein L, Wu AH, Thun MJ. Recreational physical activity and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in a large cohort of US women. Cancer Causes Control 2003, 14:519-529. 10.1023/A:1024895613663, 12948283.
336. Patel AV, Press MF, Meeske K, Calle EE, Bernstein L. Lifetime recreational exercise activity and risk of breast carcinoma in situ. Cancer 2003, 98:2161-2169. 10.1002/cncr.11768, 14601085.
337. Rintala PE, Pukkala E, Paakkulainen HT, Vihko VJ. Self-experienced physical workload and risk of breast cancer. Scand J Work Environ Health 2002, 28:158-162.
338. Rockhill B, Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Manson JE, Hankinson SE, Spiegelman D, Colditz GA. Physical activity and breast cancer risk in a cohort of young women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998, 90:1155-1160. 10.1093/jnci/90.15.1155, 9701365.
339. Slattery ML, Edwards S, Murtaugh MA, Sweeney C, Herrick J, Byers T, Giuliano AR, Baumgartner KB. Physical activity and breast cancer risk among women in the southwestern United States. Ann Epidemiol 2007, 17:342-353. 10.1016/j.annepidem.2006.10.017, 17462544.
340. Sprague BL, Trentham-Dietz A, Newcomb PA, Titus-Ernstoff L, Hampton JM, Egan KM. Lifetime recreational and occupational physical activity and risk of in situ and invasive breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007, 16:236-243. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0713, 17301255.
341. Steindorf K, Schmidt M, Kropp S, Chang-Claude J. Case-control study of physical activity and breast cancer risk among premenopausal women in Germany. Am J Epidemiol 2003, 157:121-130. 10.1093/aje/kwf181, 12522019.
342. Tehard B, Friedenreich CM, Oppert JM, Clavel-Chapelon F. Effect of physical activity on women at increased risk of breast cancer: results from the E3N cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006, 15:57-64. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0603, 16434587.
343. Thune I, Brenn T, Lund E, Gaard M. Physical activity and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1997, 336:1269-1275. 10.1056/NEJM199705013361801, 9113929.
344. Zheng W, Shu XO, McLaughlin JK, Chow WH, Gao YT, Blot WJ. Occupational physical activity and the incidence of cancer of the breast, corpus uteri, and ovary in Shanghai. Cancer 1993, 71:3620-3624. 10.1002/1097-0142(19930601)71:11<3620::AID-CNCR2820711125>3.0.CO;2-S, 8490910.
345. Burchfiel CM, Sharp DS, Curb JD, Rodriguez BL, Hwang LJ, Marcus EB, Yano K. Physical activity and incidence of diabetes: the Honolulu Heart Program. Am J Epidemiol 1995, 141:360-368. 10.1093/aje/141.4.360, 7840114.
346. Dziura J, Kasl SV, DiPietro L. Physical activity reduces type 2 diabetes risk in aging independent of body weight change. J Phys Activity Health 2004, 1:19-28.
347. Hu FB, Sigal RJ, Rich-Edwards JW, Colditz GA, Solomon CG, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Manson JE. Walking compared with vigorous physical activity and risk of type 2 diabetes in women: a prospective study. JAMA 1999, 282:1433-1439. 10.1001/jama.282.15.1433, 10535433.
348. Hu FB, Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Rimm EB. Physical activity and television watching in relation to risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus in men. Arch Intern Med 2001, 161:1542-1548. 10.1001/archinte.161.12.1542, 11427103.
349. Rana JS, Li TY, Manson JE, Hu FB. Adiposity compared with physical inactivity and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 2007, 30:53-58. 10.2337/dc06-1456, 17192333.
350. Sawada SS, Lee IM, Muto T, Matuszaki K, Blair SN. Cardiorespiratory fitness and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: prospective study of Japanese men. Diabetes Care 2003, 26:2918-2922. 10.2337/diacare.26.10.2918, 14514602.
351. Weinstein AR, Sesso HD, Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE, Gaziano JM. Relationship of physical activity vs body mass index with type 2 diabetes in women. JAMA 2004, 292:1188-1194. 10.1001/jama.292.10.1188, 15353531.