Aquaculture and restocking: Implications for conservation and welfare

Animal Welfare

Volumn 19, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 139-149

  Braithwaite, V A ^a,b   Salvanes, A G V ^b  

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BERGEN   (Norway)

Author keywords

Animal welfare; Aquaculture; Conservation; Fish farming; Restocking; Stock enhancement

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL WELFARE; AQUACULTURE; CONSERVATION BIOLOGY; COST; FEEDING; FISH; FISH STOCK; HATCHERY; HEALTH CARE; NONHUMAN; PISCICULTURE; REVIEW; WASTE MANAGEMENT; WILD ANIMAL;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 77951556165     PISSN: 09627286     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Adams C, Huntingford FA, Turnbull JF, Arnott S and Bell A 2000 Size heterogeneity can reduce aggression and promote growth in Atlantic salmon parr. Aquaculture International 8: 543-549 (Pubitemid 32177397)
2. Alänära A 1996 The use of self-feeders in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) production. Aquaculture 145: 1-20 (Pubitemid 27282528)
3. Andrew JE, Noble C, Kadri S, Jewell H and Huntingford FA 2002 The effect of demand feeding on swimming speed and feeding responses in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L, gilthead sea bream, Sparus aurata L and European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax L in sea cages. Aquaculture Research 33: 501-507 (Pubitemid 34536291)
4. Angulo FJ, Nargund VN and Chiller TC 2004 Evidence of an association between use of anti-microbial agents in food animals and anti-microbial resistance among bacteria isolated from humans and the human health consequences of such resistance. Journal of Veterinary Medicine 51: 374-379
5. Araki H, Cooper B and Blouin MS 2007 Genetic effects of captive breeding cause a rapid, cumulative fitness decline in the wild. Science 318: 100-103 (Pubitemid 47538041)
6. Arendt JD 1997 Adaptive intrinsic growth rates: an integration across taxa. Quarterly Reviews in Biology 72: 149-177 (Pubitemid 127681335)
7. Ashley PJ 2007 Fish welfare: Current issues in aquaculture. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 104: 199-235 (Pubitemid 46527951)
8. Baras E and Jobling M 2002 Dynamics of intra-cohort cannibalism in cultured fish. Aquaculture Research 33: 461-479 (Pubitemid 34536288)
9. Barton BA and Iwama GK 1991 Physiological changes in fish from stress in aquaculture with emphasis on the response and effects of corticosteroids. Annual Review of Fish Diseases 1: 3-26
10. Berejikian BA, Tezak EP, Flagg TA, LaRae AL, Kummerow E and Mahnkenm CVW 2000 Social dominance, growth, and habitat use of age-0 steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) grown in enriched and conventional hatchery rearing environments. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57: 628-636 (Pubitemid 30247460)
11. Berejikian BA, Tezak EP, Riley SC and LaRae AL 2001 Competitive ability and social behaviour of juvenile steelhead reared in enriched and conventional hatchery tanks and a stream environment. Journal of Fish Biology 59: 1600-1613
12. Berejikian B, van Doornik D, LaRae A, Tezak S and Lee J 2005 The effects of exercise in behaviour and reproductive success of captively reared steelhead. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 134: 1236-1252 (Pubitemid 41499957)
13. Braithwaite VA and Salvanes AGV 2005 Environmental variability in the early rearing environment generates behaviourally flexible cod: implications for rehabilitating wild populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London Series B272:1107-1113
14. Braithwaite VA and Boulcott P 2007 Pain perception and fear in fish. Diseases in Aquatic Organisms 75: 131-138
15. Branson EJ 2008 Fish Welfare. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
16. Branson EJ and Turnbull T 2008 Welfare and deformities in fish. In: Branson EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 202-216. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
17. Butler JRA 2002 Wild salmonids and sea louse infestations on the west coast of Scotland: sources of infection and implications for the management of marine salmon farms. Pest Management Science 58: 595-608
18. Cabello FC 2004 Antibiotics and aquaculture in Chile: implications for human and animal health. Revista Medica de Chile 132: 1001-1006
19. Cabello FC 2006 Heavy use of prophylactic antibiotics in aquaculture: a growing problem for human and animal health and for the environment. Environmental Microbiology 8: 1137-1144
20. Calow P 1982 Homeostasis and fitness. American Naturalist 120: 416-419
21. Carroll SP and Corneli PS 1999 The evolution of behavioural norms of reaction as a problem in ecological genetics: theory, methods and data. In: Foster S and Endler JA (eds) Geographic Variation in Behaviour. Perspectives on Evolutionary Mechanisms pp 52-61. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK
22. Chandroo KP, Duncan IJH and Moccia RD 2004 Can fish suffer?: perspectives on sentience, pain, fear and stress. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 86: 225-250
23. Chelossi E, Vezzulli L, Milano A, Branzoni M, Fabiano M and Riccardi G 2003 Antibiotic resistance of benthic bacteria in fish-farm and control sediments of the Western Mediterranean. Aquaculture 219: 83-97 (Pubitemid 36345499)
24. Chevassus B 1979 Hybridization in salmonids: results and perspectives. Aquaculture 17: 113-128
25. Clifford SL, McGinnity P and Ferguson A 1998 Genetic changes in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) populations of northwest Irish rivers resulting from escapes of adult farm salmon. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 55: 358-363 (Pubitemid 28290511)
26. Conover DO and Present TMC 1990 Countergradient variation in growth rate: compensation for length of growing season among Atlantic silversides from different latitudes. Oecologia 83: 316-324
27. Conover DO and Schultz ET 1995 Phenotypic similarity and the evolutionary significance of countergradient variation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10: 248-252
28. Costa-Pierce BA 2002 Ecology as the paradigm for the future of aquaculture. In: Costa-Pierce BA (ed) Ecological Aquaculture: the Evolution of the Blue Revolution pp 339-372. Blackwell Science: Malden, Massachusetts, USA
29. Coughlan J, McGinnity P, O'Farrell B, Dillane E, Diserud O, de Eyto E, Farrell K, Whelan K, Stet RJM and Cross TF 2006 Temporal variation in an immune response gene (MHC I) in anadromous Salmo trutta in an Irish river before and during aquaculture activities. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 1248-1255 (Pubitemid 44131662)
30. Crozier WW 1993 Evidence of genetic interaction between escaped farmed salmon and wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L). Aquaculture 113: 19-29
31. Cubbitt KF, Butterworth KG, Finstad B, Huntingford FA and McKinley RS 2006 The consequence of escaped farmed salmon in the Pacific North West. Bulletin of the Aquaculture Association 106: 44-52
32. Dahle G, Jørstad KE, Rusaas HE and Otterå H 2006 Genetic characteristics of broodstock collected from four Norwegian coastal cod (Gadus morhua) populations. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 209-215 (Pubitemid 43265924)
33. Dunn AM 2009 Parasites and biological invasions. Advances in Parasitology 68: 161-184
34. Duran GM and Marshall DL 2005 Ready-to-eat shrimp as an international vehicle of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Journal of Food Protection 68: 2395-2401
35. Einum S and Fleming IA 1997 Genetic divergence and interactions in the wild among native, farmed and hybrid Atlantic salmon. Journal of Fish Biology 50: 643-651 (Pubitemid 27161688)
36. Ellis T, Hughes RN and Howell BR 2002 Artificial dietary regime may impair subsequent foraging behaviour of hatchery-reared turbot released into natural environment. Journal of Fish Biology 61: 252-264 (Pubitemid 36247089)
37. Ellis T, Oidtmann B, St-Hilaire S, Turnbull JF, North BP, MacIntyre CM, Nikolaidis J, Hoyle I, Kestin SC and Knowles TG 2008 Fin erosion in farmed fish. In: Branson EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 121-149. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
38. Ersbak K and Haase BL 1983 Nutritional deprivation after stocking as a possible mechanism leading to mortality in streamstocked brook trout. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 3: 142-151
39. Ervik A, Kupka Hansen P and Jahnsen T 1997 Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive marine fish farming I. The concept of the MOM system (Modeling: on growing fish farms- Monitoring). Aquaculture 15: 85-94 (Pubitemid 28029151)
40. FAO 2002 State of the World's Fisheries and Aquaculture. UN Food and Agriculture Organisation: Rome, Italy
41. FAO 2006 State of World Aquaculture. UN Food and Agriculture Organisation: Rome, Italy
42. Fernö A, Huse G, Jakobsen PJ and Kristiansen TS 2006 The role of fish learning skills in fisheries and aquaculture. In: Brown C, Krause J and Laland K (eds) Fish Cognition and Behaviour pp 278-310. Blackwell Publishing: London, UK
43. Fiske P and Lund RA 1999 Escapes of reared salmon in coastal and riverine fisheries in the period 1989-1998. NINA Oppdragsmelding 603: 1-23
44. Fiske P, Lund RA and Hansen LP 2006 Relationships between the frequency of farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L, in wild salmon populations and fish farming activity in Norway 1989-2004. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 1182-1189 (Pubitemid 44108689)
45. Fleming IA and Einum S 1997 Experimental tests of genetic divergence of farmed from wild Atlantic salmon due to domestication. ICES Journal of Marine Science 54: 1051-1063 (Pubitemid 28309913)
46. Forbes H 2007 Welfare in Cod Aquaculture. PhD Thesis, University of Glasgow, UK
47. Ford JS and Myers RA 2008 A global assessment of salmon aquaculture impacts on wild salmonids. Public Library of Science 6: e33.doi:10.1371/journal. pbio.0060033
48. Foster SA and Endler JA 1999 Geographic Variation in Behaviour: Perspectives on Evolutionary Mechanisms. Oxford University Press: New York, USA
49. FSBI (Fisheries Society of the British Isles) 2002 Fish Welfare. Briefing Report 2. Granta Information Systems. http://www.le.ac.uk/biology/fsbi/welfare. pdf
50. Glover KA and Skåla Ø 2006 Temporal stability of sea louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis Kroyer populations on Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L of wild, farm and hybrid parentage. Journal of Fish Biology 68: 1795-1807
51. Gray AK, Evans MA and Thorgaard GH 1993 Viability and development of diploid and triploid salmon hybrids. Aquaculture 27: 329-337
52. Hall POJ, Anderson LG, Holby O, Kollberg S and Samuelsson M-O 1990 Chemical fluxes and mass balances in a marine fish cage farm: I. Carbon. Marine Ecology Progress Series 61: 61-73
53. Hansen KJ, Clemen LA, Ellefson ME and Johnson HO 2001 Compound-specific, quantitative characterization of organic fluorochemicals in biological matrices. Environmental Science and Technology 35: 766-770
54. Hansen MM 2002 Estimating the long-term effects of stocking domesticated trout into wild brown trout (Salmo trutta) populations: an approach using microsatellite DNA analysis of historical and contemporary samples. Molecular Ecology 11: 1003-1015
55. Heuch PA, Bjørn PA, Finstad B, Holst JC, Asplin L and Nilsen F 2005 A review of the Norwegian 'National Action Plan Against Salmon Lice on Salmonids': The effect on wild salmonids. Aquaculture 246: 79-92
56. Hindar K, Fleming IA, McGinnity P and Diserud A 2006 Genetic and ecological effects of salmon farming on wild salmon: modelling from experimental results. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 1234-1247 (Pubitemid 44131664)
57. Holmer M and Christensen E 1992 Impact of marine fish cage farming on metabolism and sulphate reduction of underlying sediments. Marine Ecology Progress Series 80: 191-201
58. Holmstrøm K, Graslund S, Wahlstrøm A, Poungshompoo S, Bengtsson BE and Kautsky N 2003 Antibiotic use in shrimp farming and implications for environmental impact and human health. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 38: 255-266 (Pubitemid 36332861)
59. Hseu J-R, Huang W-B and Chu Y-T 2007 What causes cannibalization- associated suffocation in cultured brown-marbled grouper, Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskål, 1775)? Aquaculture Research 38: 1056-1060
60. Huntingford FA 2004 Implications of domestication and rearing conditions for the behaviour of cultivated fishes. Journal of Fish Biology 65A: 122-142
61. Huntingford FA and Kadri S 2008 Welfare and fish. In: Branson EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 19-31 Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
62. Huntingford FA, Adams CE, Braithwaite VA, Kadri S, Pottinger TG, Sandøe P and Turnbull JF 2006 Current understanding on fish welfare: a broad overview. Journal of Fish Biology 68: 332-372
63. Hutchings JA 2000 Collapse and recovery of marine fishes. Nature 406: 882-885
64. Hutchings JA and Morris DW 1985 The influence of phylogeny, size and behavior on patterns of covariation in salmonid life histories. Oikos 45: 118-124 (Pubitemid 16279632)
65. ICES 2006 Report of the Working Group on North Atlantic Salmon. WGNAS 13 April 2006, ICES CM 2006/ACFM 23. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea: Copenhagen, Denmark
66. Iwama G 1991 Interactions between aquaculture and the environment. Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 21: 177-216
67. Jobling M 2002 Environmental factors and rates of development and growth. In: Hart PJB and Reynolds JD (eds) Handbook of Fish and Fisheries, Volume I pp 96-122. Blackwell: London, UK
68. Johnsen BO and Jensen AJ 1991 The Gyrodactylus story in Norway. Aquaculture 98: 289-302
69. Karreman GA 2006 Elements of an aquatic animal health programme: infectious haematopoietic necrosis in farmed Atlantic salmon in British Columbia. In: Scarfe AD, Lee C-S and O'Bryen PJ (eds) Aquaculture Biosecurity: Prevention, Control and Eradication of Aquatic Animal Disease pp 155-164. Blackwell Publishing: UK
70. Krkošek M, Lewis MA, Morton A, Frazer LN and Volpe JP 2006 Epizootics of wild fish induced by farm fish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103: 15506-15510 (Pubitemid 44625622)
71. Langård L 2007 The Effect of Habitat Enrichment in the Early Rearing Environment influences Anti-predator Behaviour in Juvenile Cod. MA thesis, Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Norway
72. Law R 2000 Fishing, selection and phenotypic evolution. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: 659-668
73. Lawrence AB 2008 What is animal welfare? In: Branson EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 7-18. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
74. Leitritz E and Cronklin Lewis R 1980 Trout & Salmon Culture. ANR Publications: California, USA
75. Lever C 1996 Naturalized Fishes of the World. NY, Academic Press: New York, USA
76. Levins R 1969 Thermal acclimation and heath resistance in Drosophila species. American Naturalist 103: 483-499
77. Ling SW 1977 Aquaculture in Southeast Asia. University of Washington Press: Seattle, USA
78. Longinova GA and Krasnoperova SV 1982 An attempt at crossbreeding Atlantic salmon and pink salmon (preliminary report). Aquaculture 27: 329-337
79. Lura H and Sægrov H 1991 Documentation of successful spawning of escaped farmed female Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, in Norwegian rivers. Aquaculture 98: 151-159
80. MacIntyre CM, Ellis T, North BP and Turnbull JF 2008 The influences of water quality on the welfare of farmed rainbow trout: a review In: Branson EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 150-184. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
81. Markestad A and Grave K 1997 Reduction of antibacterial drug use in Norwegian fish farming due to vaccination. Fish Vaccinology 90: 365-369
82. Matthews MA, Poole WR, Thompson CE, McKillen J, Ferguson A, Hindar K and Wheelan KF 2000 Incidence of hybridisation between Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L, and brown trout, Salmo trutta L, in Ireland. Fisheries Management and Ecology 7: 337-347 (Pubitemid 30432655)
83. McGinnity P, Prodøhl P, Ferguson A, Hynes R, O'Maoiléidigh N, Baker N, Cotter D, O'Hea B, Cooke D, Rogan G, Taggart J and Cross T 2003 Fitness reduction and potential extinction of wild populations of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, as a result of interactions with escaped farm salmon. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London Series B270: 2443-2450 (Pubitemid 37500236)
84. McVicar AH 1997 Disease and parasite implications of the coexistence of wild and cultured Atlantic salmon populations. ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 54: 1093-1103
85. McVicar AH 2004 Management actions in relation to the controversy about salmon lice infections in fish farms as a hazard to wild salmonid populations Aquaculture Research 35: 751-758
86. Moe H, Dempster T, Sunde LM, Winther U and Fredheim A 2007 Technological solutions and operational measures to prevent escapes of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) from sea cages. Aquaculture Research 35: 91-99 (Pubitemid 46046558)
87. Naylor R and Burke M 2005 Aquaculture and ocean resources: raising tigers of the sea. Annual Review of Environmental Resources 30: 185-218 (Pubitemid 41750940)
88. Naylor R, Goldburg R, Mooney H, Beveridge M, Clay J, Folke C, Kautsky N, Lubchenco J, Primavera J and Williams M 1998 Nature's subsidies to shrimp and salmon farming. Science 282: 883-884 (Pubitemid 28507507)
89. Naylor R, Goldburg R, Primavera J, Kautsky N, Beveridge M, Clay J, Folke C, Lubchenco J, Mooney H and Troell M 2000 Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature 405: 1017-1024 (Pubitemid 30447778)
90. Naylor R, Hindar K, Fleming IA, Goldburg R, Williams S, Volpe J, Whoriskey F, Eagle J, Kelso D and Mangel M 2005 Fugitive salmon: Assessing the risks of escaped fish from net-pen aquaculture. Bioscience 55: 427-437 (Pubitemid 40670212)
91. Nødtvedt M, Fernø A, Steingrund P and Gjøsæter J 1999 Anti-predator behaviour of hatchery-reared and wild Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L), and the effect of predator training. In: Howell BR, Moksness E and Svåsand T (eds) Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching pp 350-362. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
92. Nordeide JT and Salvanes AGV 1991 Observations on reared newly released and wild cod (Gadus morhua L) and their potential predators. ICES Marine Science Symposium 192: 139-146
93. Oliva-Teles A and Pimentel-Rodrigues A 2004 Phosphorus requirement of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L) juveniles. Aquaculture Research 35: 636-664
94. Olla BL, Davis MW and Ryer CH 1998 Understanding how the hatchery environment represses or promotes the development of behavioural survival skills. Bulletin of Marine Sciences 62: 531-550 (Pubitemid 128487274)
95. Papatryphon E, Petit J, Kaushik S and van der Werf H 2004 Environmental impact assessment of salmonid feeds using life cycle assessment. Ambio 33: 316-323 (Pubitemid 39123417)
96. Perry AL, Low PJ, Ellis JR and Reynolds JD 2005 Climate change and distribution shifts in marine fishes. Science 308: 1912-1915
97. Robb DHF 2008 Welfare of fish at harvest. In: Branson EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 19-31. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
98. Rose JD 2007 Anthropomorphism and 'mental welfare' of fishes. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 75: 139-154
99. Ruiz JM, Perez M and Romero J 2001 Effects of fish farm loadings on sea grass (Posidonia oceania) distribution, growth and photosynthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42: 749-760 (Pubitemid 32776675)
100. Sæther B-S, Bjørn P-A and Dale T 2007 Behavioural responses in wild cod (Gadus morhua L) exposed to fish holding water. Aquaculture 262: 260-267 (Pubitemid 46188325)
101. Salvanes AGV 2001 Ocean ranching. In: Steele J, Thorpe S and Turekian K (eds) Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences pp 1973-1982. Academic Press: London, UK
102. Salvanes AGV and Braithwaite VA 2005 Exposure to variable spatial information in the early rearing environment generates asymmetries in social interactions in cod (Gadus morhua). Behavioural Ecology & Sociobiology 59: 250-257
103. Salvanes AGV and Braithwaite VA 2006 The need to understand the behaviour of fish we rear for mariculture or for restocking. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 346-354
104. Salvanes AGV, Moberg O and Braithwaite VA 2007 Effects of early experience on group behaviour in fish. Animal Behaviour 74: 805-811 (Pubitemid 47538498)
105. Salvanes AGV, Skjæraasen JE and Nilsen T 2004 Sub-populations of coastal cod with different behaviour and life-history strategies. Marine Ecology Progress Series 267: 241-251 (Pubitemid 38345378)
106. Skåla Ø, Wennevik V and Glover KA 2006 Evidence of temporal genetic change in wild Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L, populations affected by farm escapees. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 1224-1233
107. Sørum H 2006 Antimicrobial drug resistance in fish pathogens. In: Aarestrup FM (ed) Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria of Animal Origin pp 213-238. American Society for Microbiology Press: Washington, DC, USA
108. Steingrund P and Fernø A 1997 Feeding behaviour of reared and wild cod and the effect of learning: two strategies of feeding on two-spotted gobies. Journal of Fish Biology 51: 334-348 (Pubitemid 27324531)
109. Stigebrandt A, Aure J, Ervik A and Kupka Hansen P 2004 Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive marine fish farming III. A model for estimation of the holding capacity in the Modelling-ongrowing fish farm-monitoring system. Aquaculture 234: 239-261 (Pubitemid 38484845)
110. Strand D 2007 The effect of early rearing environment and social learning on foraging behaviour in juvenile cod (Gadus morhua L). MA Thesis, Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Norway
111. Sutherland WJ 1996 From Individual Behaviour to Population Ecology. Oxford Series in Ecology and Evolution. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK
112. Svane I and Barnett J 2008 The occurrence of benthic scavengers and their consumption at tuna farms off Port Lincoln, South Australia. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 363: 110-117
113. Taylor EB 1991 A review of local adaptation in Salmonidae, with particular reference to Pacific and Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 98: 185-207
114. Teichert-Coddington D and Green BW 1993 Tilapia yield improvement through maintenance of minimal oxygen concentrations in experimental grow-out ponds in Honduras. Aquaculture 118: 63-71 (Pubitemid 2026952)
115. Torstensen BE, Espe M, Sanden M, Stubhaug I, Waagbø R, Hemre G-I, Fontanillas R, Nordgarden U, Hevrøy EM, Olsvik P and Berntssen MHG 2008 Novel production of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) protein based on combined replacement of fish meal and fish oil with plant meal and vegetable oil blends. Aquaculture 285: 193-200
116. Turnbull JF, North BP, Ellis T, Adams CE, Bron J, MacIntyre CM and Huntingford FA 2008 Stocking density and the welfare of farmed salmonids In: Branson JE (ed) Fish Welfare pp 111-120. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
117. Uglem I, Bjørn PA, Dale T, Kerwath S, Økland F, Nilsen RA, Fleming I and McKinley RS 2008 Movements and spatiotemporal distribution of escaped farmed and local wild Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L). Aquaculture Research 39: 158-170
118. Wall T 2008 Diseases and medicines: the welfare implications. In: Branson EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 195-201. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK
119. Weber ED and Fausch KD 2003 Interactions between hatchery and wild salmonids in streams: differences in biology and evidence for competition. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60: 1018-1036
120. Weber M 2003 What Price Farmed Fish: A Review of the Environmental and Social Costs of Farming. SeaWeb Aquaculture Clearinghouse: UK