Interactions between hatchery and wild salmonids in streams: Differences in biology and evidence for competition

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences

Volumn 60, Issue 8, 2003, Pages 1018-1036

  Weber, Edward D ^a   Fausch, Kurt D ^a  

^a Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPETITION (ECOLOGY); COMPETITIVE ABILITY; HATCHERY; SALMONID; STREAM; WILD POPULATION;

SALMONIDAE; VERTEBRATA;

EID: 0344927348     PISSN: 0706652X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/f03-087     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Adelman, H.M., and Bingham, J.L. 1955. Winter survival of hatchery-reared and native brook trout. Prog. Fish. Cult. 17: 177-180.
2. Bachman, R.A. 1984. Foraging behavior of free-ranging wild and hatchery brown trout in a stream. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 113: 1-32.
3. Bams, R.A. 1967. Differences in performance of naturally and artificially propagated sockeye salmon migrant fry, as measured with swimming and predation tests. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 24: 1117-1153.
4. Beamish, R.J., Thomson, B.L., and McFarlane, G.A. 1992. Spiny dogfish predation on chinook and coho salmon and the potential effects on hatchery-produced salmon. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 121: 444-455.
5. Beamish, R.J., Mahnken, C., and Neville, C.M. 1997. Hatchery and wild production of Pacific salmon in relation to large-scale, natural shifts in the productivity of the marine environment. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 54: 1200-1215.
6. Berejikian, B.A. 1995. The effects of hatchery and wild ancestry and experience on the relative ability of steelhead trout fry (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to avoid a benthic predator. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 52: 2476-2482.
7. Berejikian, B.A., Mathews S.B., and Quinn, T.P. 1996. Effects of hatchery and wild ancestry and rearing environments on the development of agonistic behavior in steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fry. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53: 2004-2014.
8. Berejikian, B.A., Tezak, E.P., Schroder, S.L., Knudsen, C.M., and Hard, J.J. 1997. Reproductive behavioral interactions between wild and captively reared coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). ICES J. Mar. Sci. 54: 1040-1050.
9. Berejikian, B.A., Tezak, E.P., Schroder, S.L., Flagg, T.A., and Knudsen, C.M. 1999. Competitive differences between newly emerged offspring of captive-reared and wild coho salmon. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 128: 832-839.
10. Berg, S., and Jorgensen, J. 1991. Stocking experiments with 0+ and 1+ trout parr, Salmo trutta L., of wild and hatchery origin: 1. Post-stocking mortality and smolt yield. J. Fish Biol. 39: 151-169.
11. Birch, L.C. 1957. The meanings of competition. Am. Nat. 91: 5-18.
12. Bjornn, T.C. 1978. Survival, production, and yield of trout and chinook salmon in the Lemhi River, Idaho. Idaho Department of Fish and Game Federal Aid to Fish Restoration Project F-49-R. Forest, Wildlife, and Range Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Moscow, Bulletin No. 27.
13. Blaxter, J.H.S. 1975. Reared and wild fish - how do they compare? Proceedings of the 10th European symposium on marine biology, Ostend Belgium, September 17-23, 1975. Universa Press, Wetteren, Belgium.
14. Bohlin, T.L., Sundström, F., Johnsson, J.I., Höjesjö, J., and Pettersson, J. 2002. Density-dependent growth in brown trout: effects of introducing wild and hatchery fish. J. Anim. Ecol. 71: 683-692.
15. Braunnas, E. 1995. First access to territorial space and exposure to strong predation pressure: a conflict in early emerging Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fry. Evol. Ecol. 9: 411-420.
16. Brauner, C.J., Iwama, G.K., and Randall, D.J. 1994. The effect of short-duration seawater exposure on the swimming performance of wild and hatchery-reared juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) during smoltification. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 51: 2188-2194.
17. Busack, C.A., and Currens, K.P. 1995. Genetic risks and hazards in hatchery operations: fundamental concepts and issues. In Uses and effects of cultured fishes in aquatic ecosystems. Edited by H.L. Schramm and R.G. Piper. Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. 15, Bethesda, Md. pp. 71-80.
18. Campton, D.E., and Johnston, J.M. 1985. Electrophoretic evidence for a genetic admixture of native and nonnative rainbow trout in the Yakima River, Washington. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 114: 782-793.
19. Chandler, G.L., and Bjornn, T.C. 1988. Abundance, growth, and interactions of juvenile steelhead relative to time of emergence. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 117: 432-443.
20. Chapman, D.W. 1962. Aggressive behavior in juvenile coho salmon as a cause of emigration. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 19: 1047-1080.
21. Chilcote, M.W., Leider, S.A., and Loch, J.J. 1986. Differential reproductive success of hatchery and wild summer-run steelhead under natural conditions. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 115: 726-735.
22. Clady, M.D. 1973. A competition and fish cultural study of rainbow trout - a literature review. Oregon State Game Commission Project No. F-94-R-1. Oregon State Wildlife Commission, Portland, Oregon.
23. Collis, K., Beaty, R.E., and Crain, B.R. 1995. Changes in catch rate and diet of northern squawfish associated with the release of hatchery-reared juvenile salmonids in a Columbia River reservoir. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 15: 346-357.
24. Cresswell, R.C. 1981. Post-stocking movements and recapture of hatchery-reared trout released into flowing waters - a review. J. Fish Biol. 18: 429-442.
25. Cutts, C.J., Bremis, B., Metcalfe, N.B., and Taylor, A.C. 1999. Prior residence, territory quality and life-history strategies in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). J. Fish. Biol. 55: 784-794.
26. Deverill, J.I., Adams, C.E., and Bean, C.W. 1999. Prior residence, aggression, and territory acquisition in hatchery-reared and wild brown trout. J. Fish Biol. 55: 868-875.
27. Dickson, T.A., and MacCrimmon, H.R. 1982. Influence of hatchery experience on growth and behavior of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) within allopatric and sympatric stream populations. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 39: 1453-1458.
28. Donnelly, W.A., and Whoriskey, F.G. 1991. Background-color acclimation of brook trout for crypsis reduces risk of predation by hooded mergansers Lophodytes cucullatus. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 11: 206-211.
29. Doyle, R.W., and Talbot, A.J. 1986. Artificial selection on growth and correlated selection on competitive behaviour in fish. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43: 1059-1064.
30. Egglishaw, H.J., and Shackley, P.E. 1980. Survival and growth of salmon, Salmo salar (L.), planted in a Scottish stream. J. Fish Biol. 16: 565-584.
31. Einum, S., and Fleming, I.A. 1997. Genetic divergence and interactions in the wild among native, farmed and hybrid Atlantic salmon. J. Fish Biol. 50: 634-651.
32. Einum, S., and Fleming, I.A. 1999. Maternal effects of egg size in brown trout (Salmo trutta): norms of reaction to environmental quality. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 266: 2095-2100.
33. Einum, S., and Fleming, I.A. 2001. Implications of stocking: ecological interactions between wild and released salmonids. Nordic J. Freshw. Res. 75: 56-70.
34. Elliott, J.M. 1975. Weight of food and time required to satiate brown trout (Salmo trutta). Freshw. Biol. 5: 51-64.
35. Ersbak, K., and Haase, B.L. 1983. Nutritional deprivation after stocking as a possible mechanism leading to mortality in stream-stocked brook trout. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 3: 142-151.
36. Fausch, K.D. 1984. Profitable stream positions for salmonids: relating specific growth rate to net energy gain. Can. J. Zool. 62: 441-451.
37. Fausch, K.D. 1988. Tests of competition between native and introduced salmonids in streams: what have we learned? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 45: 2238-2246.
38. Fausch, K.D. 1998. Interspecifc competition and juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): on testing effects and evaluating the evidence across scales. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55(Suppl. 1): 218-231.
39. Fausch, K.D., Taniguchi, Y., Nakano, S., Grossman, G.D., and Townsend, C.R. 2001. Flood disturbance regimes influence rainbow trout invasion success among five Holarctic regions. Ecol. Appl. 11: 1438-1454.
40. Fenderson, O.C., and Carpenter, M.R. 1971. Effects of crowding on the behaviour of juvenile hatchery and wild landlocked Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Anim. Behav. 19: 439-447.
41. Fenderson, O.C., Everhart, W.H., and Muth, K.M. 1968. Comparative agonistic and feeding behaviour of hatchery reared and wild salmon in aquaria. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 25: 1-14.
42. Flagg, T.A., Waknitz, F.W., Maynard, D.J., Milner, G.B., and Mahnken, C.V.W. 1995. The effect of hatcheries on native coho salmon populations in the lower Columbia River. In Uses and effects of cultured fishes in aquatic ecosystems. Edited by H.L. Schramm and R.G. Piper. Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. 15, Bethesda, Md. pp. 366-375.
43. Fleming, I.A., and Einum, S. 1997. Experimental tests of genetic divergence of farmed from wild Atlantic salmon due to domestication. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 54: 1051-1063.
44. Fleming, I.A., and Gross, M.R. 1989. Evolution of adult female life history and morphology in a Pacific salmon (Coho: Oncorhynchus kisutch). Evolution, 43: 141-157.
45. Fleming, I.A., and Gross, M.R. 1993. Breeding success of hatchery and wild coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in competition. Ecol. Appl. 3: 230-245.
46. Fleming, I.A., and Gross, M.R. 1994. Breeding competition in a Pacific salmon (Coho: Oncorhynchus kisutch): measures of natural and sexual selection. Evolution, 48: 637-657.
47. Fleming, I.A., and Petersson, E. 2001. The ability of released, hatchery salmonids to breed and contribute to the natural productivity of wild populations. Nord. J. Freshw. Res. 75: 71-78.
48. Fleming, I.A., Jonsson, B., and Gross, M.R. 1994. Phenotypic divergence of sea-ranched, farmed, and wild salmon. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 51: 2808-2824.
49. Fleming, I.A., Lamberg, A., and Jonsson, B. 1997. Effects of early experience on the reproductive performance of Atlantic salmon. Behav. Ecol. 8: 470-480.
50. Fleming, I.A., Hindar, K., Mjolnerod, I.B., Jonsson, B., Balstad, T., and Lamberg, A. 2000. Lifetime success and interactions of farm salmon invading a native population. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 267: 1517-1523.
51. Fleming, I.A., Agustsson, T., Finstad, B., Johnsson, J.L., and Björnsson, B.T. 2002. Effects of domestication on growth physiology and endocrinology of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 59: 1323-1330.
52. Flick, W.A., and Webster, D.A. 1964. Comparative first year survival and production in wild and domestic strains of brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 93: 58-69.
53. Fresh, K.L. 1997. The role of competition and predation in the decline of Pacific salmon and steelhead. In Pacific salmon and their ecosystems: status and future options. Edited by D.J. Stouder, P.A. Bisson, R.J. Naiman, and M.G. Duke. Chapman and Hall, New York. pp. 245-275.
54. Glova, G.J., and Field-Dodgson, M.S. 1995. Behavioral interaction between chinook salmon and brown trout juveniles in a simulated stream. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 124: 194-206.
55. Gowan, C., and Fausch, K.D. 2002. Why do foraging salmonids move during summer? Environ. Biol. Fishes, 64: 139-13.
56. Grant, J.W.A. 1993. Whether or not to defend? The influence of resource distribution. In Behavioural ecology of fishes. Edited by FA. Huntingford and P. Torricelli. Harwood Academic Publishers, Chur, Switzerland, pp. 137-153.
57. Greene, D.M. 1964. A comparison of stamina of brook trout from wild and domestic parents. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 93: 96-100.
58. Gross, M.R. 1998. One species with two biologies: Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the wild and in aquaculture. Can. J. Fish. Aquåt. Sci. 55(Suppl. 1) :131-144.
59. Hansen, L.P., and Jonsson, B. 1985. Downstream migration of hatchery-reared smolts of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in the River Imsa, Norway. Aquaculture, 45: 237-248.
60. Hartman, G.F., Andersen, B.C., and Scrivener, J.C. 1982. Seaward movement of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) fry in Carnation Creek, an unstable coastal stream in British Columbia. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 39: 588-597.
61. Healey, M.C., and Reinhardt, U. 1995. Predator avoidance in naïve and experienced juvenile chinook salmon and coho salmon. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 52: 614-622.
62. Hilborn, R., and Eggers, D. 2000. A review of the hatchery programs for pink salmon in Prince William Sound and Kodiak Island, Alaska. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 129: 333-350.
63. Hillman, T.W., and Mullan, J.W. 1989. Effect of hatchery releases on the abundance and behavior of wild juvenile salmonids. In Summer and winter ecology of juvenile chinook salmon and steelhead trout in the Wenatchee River, Washington. Don Chapman Consultants, Boise, Idaho, pp. 266-285.
64. Hindar, K., Ryman, N., and Utter, F. 1991. Genetic effects of cultured fish on natural fish populations. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48: 945-957.
65. Hjort, R.C., and Schreck, C.B. 1982. Phenotypic differences among stocks of hatchery and wild coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, in Oregon, Washington, and California. Fish. Bull. 80: 105-119.
66. Holtby, L.B. 1988. Effects of logging on stream temperatures in Carnation Creek, British Columbia, and associated impacts on the coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 45: 502-515.
67. Hughes, N.F. 1992. Selection of positions by drift-feeding salmonids in dominance hierarchies: model and test for arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus) in subarctic mountain streams, interior Alaska. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49: 1999-2008.
68. Hume, J.M.B., and Parkinson, E.A. 1987. Effect of stocking density on the survival, growth, and dispersal of steelhead trout fry (Salmo gairdneri). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44: 271-281.
69. Huntingford, F.A., and Garcia De Leaniz, C. 1997. Social dominance, prior residence and the acquisition of profitable feeding sites in juvenile Atlantic salmon. J. Fish Biol. 51: 1009-1014.
70. Jenkins, T.M. 1971. Role of social behavior in dispersal of introduced rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 28: 1019-1027.
71. Johnson, J.H., McKeon, J.F., and Dropkin, D.S. 1996. Comparative diets of hatchery and wild Atlantic salmon smolts in the Merrimack River. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 16: 440-444.
72. Johnsson, J.I., and Abrahams, M.V. 1991. Interbreeding with domestic strain increases foraging under threat of predation in juvenile steelhead trout (Oncorhunchus mykiss): an experimental study. Can J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48: 243-247.
73. Johnsson, J.I., and Björnsson, B.Th. 1994. Growth hormone increases growth rate, appetite and dominance in juvenile rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Anim. Behav. 48: 177-186.
74. Johnsson, J., Nobbelin, I.F., and Bohlin, T. 1999. Territorial competition among wild brown trout fry: effects of ownership and body size. J. Fish Biol. 54: 469-472.
75. Johnsson, J.I., Petersson, E., Jonsson, E., Björnsson, B.T., and Jarvi, T. 1996. Domestication and growth hormone alter antipredator behaviour and growth patterns in juvenile brown trout, Salmo trutta. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53: 1546-1554.
76. Johnsson, J.I., Höjesjö, J., and Fleming, I.A. 2001. Behavioural and heart rate responses to predation risk in wild and domesticated Atlantic salmon. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58: 788-794.
77. Kallio-Nyberg, I., and Koljonen, M.L. 1997. The genetic consequence of hatchery-rearing on life-history traits of Atlantic salmon (Salmo solar L.): a comparative analysis of sea-ranched salmon with wild and reared parents. Aquaculture, 153: 207-224.
78. Keenleyside, M.H.A., and Yamamoto, F.T. 1962. Territorial behaviour of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Behaviour, 19: 139-169.
79. Leider, S.A., Hulett, P.L., Lock, J.J., and Chilcote, M.W. 1990. Electrophoretic comparison of the reproductive success of naturally spawning transplanted and wild steelhead trout through the returning adult stage. Aquaculture, 88: 239-252.
80. Levin, P.S., Zabel, R.W., and Williams, J.G. 2001. The road to extinction is paved with good intentions: negative association of fish hatcheries with threatened salmon. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, Biol. Sci. 268: 1153-1158.
81. Marnell, L.F. 1985. Impacts of hatchery stocks on wild fish populations. In Fish culture in fisheries management. Edited by R.H. Stroud. Am. Fish. Soc. Fish Culture Section and Fisheries Management Section, Bethesda, Md. pp. 339-348.
82. Martel, G., and Dill, L.M. 1993. Feeding and aggressive behaviours in juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) under chemically-mediated risk of predation. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 32: 365-370.
83. Mason, J.C., and Chapman, D.W. 1965. Significance of early emergence, environmental rearing capacity, and behavioral ecology of juvenile coho salmon in stream channels. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 22: 173-190.
84. Mason, J.W., Brynildson, O.M., and Degurse, P.E. 1967. Comparative survival of wild and domestic strains of brook trout in streams. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 96: 313-319.
85. Maynard, D.J., Flagg, T.A., and Mahnken, C.V.W. 1995. A review of seminatural culture strategies for enhancing the postrelease survival of anadromous salmonids. In Uses and effects of cultured fishes in aquatic ecosystems. Edited by H.L. Schramm and R.G. Piper. Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. 15, Bethesda, Md. pp. 307-314.
86. Maynard, D.J., McDowell, G.C., Tezak, E.P., and Flagg, T.A. 1996. Effect of diets supplemented with live food on the foraging behavior of cultured fall chinook salmon. Prog. Fish-Cult. 58: 187-191.
87. McGinnity, P., Stone, C., Taggart, J.B., Cooke, D., Cotter, D., Hynes, R., McCamley, C., Cross, T., and Ferguson, A. 1997, Genetic impact of escaped farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) on native populations: use of DNA profiling to assess freshwater performance of wild, farmed, and hybrid progeny in a natural river environment. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 54: 998-1008.
88. McIntyre, J.D., and Reisenbichler, R.R. 1986. A model for selecting harvest fraction for aggregate populations of hatchery and wild anadromous salmonids. In Fish culture in fisheries management. Edited by R.H. Stroud. Am. Fish. Soc. Fish Culture Section and Fisheries Management Section, Bethesda, Md. pp. 179-189.
89. McLaren, J.B. 1979. Comparative behavior of hatchery-reared and wild brown trout and its relation to intergroup competition in a stream. Ph.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park.
90. McMichael, G.A., and Pearsons, T.N. 1998. Effects of wild juvenile spring chinook salmon on growth and abundance of wild rainbow trout. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 127: 261-274.
91. McMichael, G.A., Sharpe, C.S., and Pearsons, T.N. 1997. Effects of residual hatchery-reared steelhead on growth of wild rainbow and spring chinook salmon. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 126: 230-239.
92. McMichael, G.A., Pearsons, T.N., and Leider, S.A. 1999. Behavioral interactions among hatchery-reared steelhead smolts and wild Oncorhynchus mykiss in natural streams. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 19: 948-956.
93. McMichael, G.A., Pearsons, T.N., and Leider, S.A. 2000. Minimizing ecological impacts of hatchery-reared juvenile steelhead trout on wild salmonids in a Yakima Basin watershed. In Sustainable fisheries management: Pacific salmon. Edited by E.E. Knudsen, C.R. Steward, D.D. MacDonald, J.E. Williams, and D.W. Reiser. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Fla. pp. 365-380.
94. Mead, R.W., and Woodall, W.L. 1968. Comparison of sockeye salmon fry produced by hatcheries, artificial channels, and natural spawning areas. International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission Progress Report No. 20, New Westminster, British Columbia.
95. Mesa, M.G. 1991. Variation in feeding, aggression, and position choice between hatchery and wild cutthroat trout in an artificial stream. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 120: 723-727.
96. Metcalfe, N.B. 1986. Intraspecific variation in competitive ability and food intake in salmonids: consequences for budgets and growth rates. J. Fish Biol. 28: 525-531.
97. Metcalfe, N.B., and Thorpe, J.E. 1992. Early predictors of life-history events: the link between first feeding date, dominance and seaward migration in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. J. Fish Biol. 41(Suppl. B): 93-99.
98. Miller, R.B. 1955. Trout management research in Alberta. In Transactions of the 20th North American Wildlife Conference, 14-16 March. The Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C. pp. 242-252.
99. Miller, R.B. 1958. The role of competition in the mortality of hatchery trout. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 15: 27-45.
100. Miller, R.B. 1962. Comparative survival of wild and hatchery-reared cutthroat trout in a stream. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 83: 120-130.
101. Mortensen, E. 1977. The population dynamics of young trout (Salmo trutta L.) in a Danish brook. J. Fish Biol. 10: 23-33.
102. Moyle, PB. 1969. Comparative behavior of young brook trout of domestic and wild origin. Prog. Fish-Cult. 31: 51-56.
103. Needham, P.R., and Slater, D.W. 1944. Survival of hatchery-reared brown and rainbow trout as affected by wild trout populations. J. Wildl. Manag. 8: 22-36.
104. Nickelson, T.E., Solazzi, M.F., and Johnson, S.L. 1986. Use of hatchery coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) presmolts to rebuild wild populations in Oregon coastal streams. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43: 2443-2449.
105. Nielsen, I.L. 1994. Invasive cohorts - impacts of hatchery-reared coho salmon on the trophic, developmental and genetic ecology of wild stocks. In Theory and application in fish feeding ecology. Edited by D.I. Stouder, K.L. Fresh, and R. Feller. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, S.C. pp. 361-385.
106. Noakes, D.J., Beamish, R.J., Sweeting, R., and King, J. 2000. Changing the balance: interactions between hatchery and wild Pacific coho salmon in the presence of regime shifts. North Pac. Anadromous Fish Comm. Bull. 2: 155-163.
107. O'Connor, K.I., Metcalfe, N.B., and Taylor, A.C. 2000. The effects of prior residence on behavior and growth rates in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Behav. Ecol. 11: 13-18.
108. Olla, B.L., and Davis, M.W. 1989. The role of learning and stress in predator avoidance of hatchery-reared coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) juveniles. Aquaculture, 76: 209-214.
109. Olla, B.L., Davis, M.W., and Ryer, C.H. 1994. Behavioural deficits in hatchery-reared fish: potential effects on survival following release. Aquacult. Fish. Manag. 25(Suppl. 1): 19-34.
110. Olla, B.L., Davis, M.W., and Ryer, C.H. 1998. Understanding how the hatchery environment represses or promotes the development of behavioral survival skills. Bull. Mar. Sci. 62: 531-550.
111. Pearcy, W.G. 1997. Salmon production in changing ocean domains. In Pacific salmon and their ecosystems: status and future options. Edited by D.J. Stouder, P.A. Bisson, R.J. Naiman, and M.G. Duke. Chapman and Hall, New York. pp. 331-352.
112. Peery, C.A., and Bjornn, T.C. 1996. Small-scale investigations into chinook salmon. Supplementation strategies and techniques: 1992-1994. Bonneville Power Administration Technical Rep. No. 96-3, Portland, Oregon.
113. Petersson, E., Jarvi, T., Steffner, N.G., and Ragnarsson, B. 1996. The effect of domestication on some life history traits of sea trout and Atlantic salmon. J. Fish Biol. 48: 776-791.
114. Petrosky, C.E., and Bjornn, T.C. 1988. Response of wild rainbow (Salmo gairdneri) and cutthroat trout (S. clarki) to stocked rainbow trout in fertile and infertile stream. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 45: 2087-2105.
115. Phillips, A.M. 1957. A chemical comparison of hatchery and wild brook trout. Prog. Fish. Cult. 19: 19-25.
116. Piggins, P.J., and Mills, C.P.R. 1985. Comparative aspects of the biology of naturally produced and hatchery-reared Atlantic salmon smolts (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture, 45: 321-333.
117. Pollard, H.A., and Bjornn, T.C. 1973. The effects of angling and hatchery trout on the abundance of juvenile steelhead trout. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 102: 745-752.
118. Quinn, T.P., and Peterson, N.P. 1996. The influence of habitat complexity and fish size on overwinter survival and growth of individually marked juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in Big Beef Creek, Washington. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53: 1555-1564.
119. Reinhardt, U.G., Yamamoto, T., and Nakano, S. 2001. Effects of body size and predators on intracohort competition in wild and domesticated juvenile salmon in a stream. Ecol. Res. 16: 327-334.
120. Reisenbichler, R.R., and McIntyre, J.D. 1977. Genetic differences in growth and survival of juvenile hatchery and wild steelhead trout, Salmo gairdneri. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34: 123-128.
121. Reisenbichler, R.R., and Rubin, S.P. 1999. Genetic changes from artificial propagation of Pacific salmon affect productivity and viability of supplemented populations. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 56: 459-466.
122. Rhodes, J.S., and Quinn, T.P. 1998. Factors affecting the outcome of territorial contests between hatchery and naturally reared coho salmon parr in the laboratory. J. Fish Biol. 53: 1220-1230.
123. Rhodes, J.S., and Quinn, T.P. 1999. Comparative performance of genetically similar hatchery and naturally reared juvenile coho salmon in streams. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 19: 670-677.
124. Richards, C., and Cernera, P.J. 1989. Dispersal and abundance of hatchery-reared and naturally spawned juvenile chinook salmon in an Idaho stream. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 9: 345-351.
125. Ritter, J.A., and MacCrimmon, H.R. 1973. Influence of environmental experience on response of yearling rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to a black and white substrate. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 30: 1740-1742.
126. Rosenau, M.L., and McPhail, J.D. 1987. Inherited differences in agonistic behavior between two populations of coho salmon. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 116: 646-654.
127. Ruzzante, D.E. 1994. Domestication effects on aggressive and schooling behavior in fish. Aquaculture, 120: 1-24.
128. Salonius, K., and Iwama, G.K. 1993. Effects of early rearing environment on stress response, immune function, and disease resistance in juvenile coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50: 759-766.
129. Schuck, H.A. 1948. Survival of hatchery trout in streams and possible methods of improving the quality of hatchery trout. Prog. Fish. Cult. 10: 3-14.
130. Seegrist, D.W., and Gard, R. 1972. Effects of floods on trout in Sagehen Creek, California. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 101: 478-482.
131. Seelbach, P.W. 1987. Smolting success of hatchery-raised steelhead planted in a Michigan tributary of Lake Michigan. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 7: 223-231.
132. Seelbach, P.W., and Whelan, G.E. 1988. Identification and contribution of wild and hatchery steelhead stocks in Lake Michigan tributaries. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 117: 444-451.
133. Shrimpton, M.J., Bernier, N.J., Iwama, G.K., and Randall, D.J. 1994. Differences in measurements of smolt development between wild and hatchery-reared juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) before and after saltwater exposure. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 51: 2170-2178.
134. Siikavuopio, S.I., Baardvik, B.M., and Jobling, M. 1996. Domestication effects on fin nipping, survival and growth in hatchery-reared arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus (L.), in competition with wild conspecifics. Aquacult. Res. 27: 205-211.
135. Smirnov, B.P., Chebanova, V.V., and Vvedenskaya, T.V. 1994. Adaptation of hatchery-rased chum salmon, Oncohynchus keta, and chinook salmon, O. tshawytscha, to natural feeding and effects of starvation. J. Icthyol. 34: 96-106.
136. Sosiak, A.J., Randall, R.G., and McKenzie, J.A. 1979. Feeding by hatchery-reared and wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) parr in streams. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 36: 1408-1412.
137. Steward, C.R., and Bjornn, T.C. 1990. Supplementation of salmon and steelhead stocks with hatchery fish: a synthesis of published literature. Tech. Rep. No. 90-1 for The Office of Information Transfer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Dworshak Fisheries Assistance Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bonneville Power Administration.
138. Swain, D.P., and Riddell, B.E. 1990. Variation in agonistic behaviour between newly emerged juveniles from hatchery and wild populations of coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47: 566-571.
139. Swain, D.P., Riddell, B.E., and Murray, C.B. 1991. Morphological differences between hatchery and wild populations of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch): environmental versus genetic origin. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48: 1783-1791.
140. Symons, E.K. 1969. Greater dispersal of wild compared with hatchery-reared juvenile Atlantic salmon released in streams. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 26: 1867-1876.
141. Taylor, E.B. 1986. Differences in morphology between wild and hatchery populations of juvenile coho salmon. Prog. Fish. Cult. 48: 171-176.
142. Taylor, E.B., and Larkin, P.A. 1986. Current response and agonistic behavior in newly emerged fry of chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, from ocean- and stream-type populations. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43: 565-573.
143. Thuemler, T. 1975. Fish the blue ribbon streams. Wisconsin Conserv. Bull. 40: 16-17.
144. Underwood, T. 1986. The analysis of competition by field experiments. In Community ecology: pattern and process. Edited by J. Kikkawa and D.J. Anderson. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Palo Alto, Calif. pp. 240-268.
145. Unwin, M.J., and Glova, G.J. 1997. Changes in life history parameters in a naturally spawning population of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) associated with releases of hatchery-reared fish. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 54: 1235-1245.
146. Unwin, M.J., and Lucas, D.H. 1993. Scale characteristics of wild and hatchery chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in the Rakaia River, New Zealand, and their use in stock identification. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50: 2475-2484.
147. Vincent, R.E. 1960. Some influences of domestication upon three stocks of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis Mitchill). Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 89: 35-52.
148. Vincent, R.E. 1987. Effects of stocking catchable-size hatchery rainbow trout on two wild trout species in the Madison River and O'Dell Creek, Montana. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 7: 91-105.
149. Volpe, J.P., Anholt, B.R., and Glickman, B.W. 2001. Competition among juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss): relevance to invasion potential in British Columbia. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58: 197-207.
150. Wales, J.H. 1954. Relative survival of hatchery and wild trout. Prog. Fish. Cult. 16: 125-127.
151. Weiss, S., and Schmutz, S. 1999. Performance of hatchery-reared brown trout and their effects on wild fish in two small Austrian streams. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 128: 302-316.
152. White, R.J., Karr, J.R., and Nehlsen, W.N. 1995. Better roles for fish stocking in aquatic resource management. In Uses and effects of cultured fishes in aquatic ecosystems. Edited by H.L. Schramm and R.G. Piper. Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. 15, Bethesda, Md. pp. 527-547.
153. Winton, J., and Hilborn, R. 1994. Lessons from supplementation of chinook salmon in British Columbia. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 14: 1-13.
154. Woodward, C.C., and Strange, R.J. 1987. Physiological stress responses in wild and hatchery-reared rainbow trout. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 116: 574-579.
155. Youngson, A.F., and Verspoor, E. 1998. Interactions between wild and introduced Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55(Suppl. 1): 153-160.