How can we improve school discipline?

Educational Researcher

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 48-58

  Osher, D ^a   Bear, George G ^b   Sprague, Jeffrey R ^c   Doyle, Walter ^d  

^a AMERICAN INSTITUTES FOR RESEARCH   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF OREGON   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

Author keywords

At risk students; School psychology; Student behavior attitude; Violence

Indexed keywords

EID: 77951477526     PISSN: 0013189X     EISSN: 1935102X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3102/0013189X09357618     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. Acker, M., & O'Leary, S. (1987). Effects of reprimands and praise on appropriate behavior in the classroom. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 549-557.
2. Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, A. Z. (1997). Addressing barriers to learning: Beyond school-linked services and full-service schools. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67, 408-421.
3. Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709-716.
4. American Academy of Pediatrics. (1998). Guidance for effective discipline. Pediatrics, 101, 723-728.
5. Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.
6. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
7. Battistich, V. (2003). Effects of a school-based program to enhance prosocial development on children's peer relations and social adjustment. Journal of Research in Character Education, 1(1), 1-16.
8. Battistich, V., Solomon, D., Watson, M., & Schaps, E. (1997). Caring school communities. Educational Psychologist, 32, 137-151.
9. Bear, G. G. (with A. Cavalier & M. Manning). (2005). Developing selfdiscipline and preventing and correcting misbehavior. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
10. Bear, G. G. (2009). The positive in positive models of discipline. In R. Gilman, E. S. Huebner, & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology in schools (pp. 305-321). New York: Routledge.
11. Bear, G. G. (in press). From school discipline to self-discipline. New York: Guilford.
12. Benbenishty, R., & Astor, R. (2005). School violence in context: Culture, neighborhood, family, school and gender. New York: Oxford University Press.
13. Berkowitz, M. W., & Bier, M. C. (2004). Research-based character edu-cation. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 72-85.
14. Berkowitz, M. W., & Schwartz, M. (2006). Character education. In G. G. Bear & K. M. Minke (Eds.), Children's needs III: Development, prevention, and intervention (pp. 15-27). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
15. Berkowitz, M. W., Sherblom, S., Bier, M., & Battistich, V. (2006). Educating for positive youth development. In M. Killen & J. Smetana (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (pp. 683-702). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
16. Biglan, T., Wang, M., & Walberg, H. (2003). Preventing youth problems. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
17. Bradshaw, C. P., Koth, C. W., Bevans, K. B., Ialongo, N., & Leaf, P. J. (2008). The impact of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) on the organizational health of elementary schools. School Psychology Quarterly, 23, 462-473.
18. Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2009). Examining the effects of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports on student outcomes: Results from a randomized controlled effectiveness trial in elementary schools [Online]. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. Available at http://pbi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1098300709334798v1
19. Bradshaw, C. P., Sawyer, A. L., & O'Brennan, L. M. (2007). Bullying and peer victimization at school: Perceptual differences between students and school staff. School Psychology Review, 36, 361-382.
20. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
21. Brophy, J. E. (1996). Teaching problem students. New York: Guilford.
22. Bryk, A., & Driscoll, M. (1988). The high school as community: Contextual influences and consequences for students and teachers. Madison: University of Wisconsin, National Center on Effective Secondary Schools.
23. Buhs, E. S., & Ladd, G. W. (2001). Peer rejection as an antecedent of young children's school adjustment: An examination of mediating process. Developmental Psychology, 37, 550-560.
24. Byrne, B. M. (1999). The nomological network of teacher burnout: A literature review and empirically validated model. In R. Vandenberghe & A. M. Huberman (Eds.), Understanding and preventing teacher burnout: A sourcebook of international research and practice (pp. 15-37). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge College Press.
25. Carr, E. G., Dunlap, G., Horner, R. H., Koegel, R. L., Turnbull, A. P.,& Sailor, W., et al. (2002). Positive behavior support: Evolution of an applied science. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4, 4-16, 20.
26. Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M. L., Ryan, J. A. M., Lonczak, H. S., & Hawkins, J. D. (2004). Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 98-124.
27. Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. (2004). School-wide positive behavior support: Implementers' blueprint and selfassessment. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
28. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. (2003). Safe and sound: An educational leader's guide to evidence-based social and emotional learning programs. Chicago: Author.
29. Colvin, G., Kame'enui, E. J., & Sugai, G. (1993). School-wide and classroom management: Reconceptualizing the integration and management of students with behavior problems in general education. Education and Treatment of Children, 16, 361-381.
30. Comer, J., & Haynes, M. (1991). Parent involvement in schools: An ecological approach. Elementary School Journal, 91, 271-278.
31. Conoley, J. C., & Goldstein, A. P. (2004). School violence intervention: A practical handbook (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
32. Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1996). Social information-processing mechanisms on reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development, 67, 993-1002.
33. Denham, S. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2004). Social-emotional learning in early childhood: What we know and where to go from here. In E. Chesebrough, P. King, T. P. Gullotta, & M. Bloom (Eds.), A blueprint for the promotion of prosocial behavior in early childhood (pp. 13-50). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
34. Dinkes, R., Kemp, J., & Baum, K. (2009). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2008 (NCES 2009-022/NCJ 226343). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, and U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
35. Dishion, T. J., & Dodge, K. A. (2005). Peer contagion in interventions for children and adolescents: Moving towards an understanding of the ecology and dynamics of change. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 33, 395-400.
36. Dishion, T. J., Dodge, K. A., & Lansford, J. E. (2006). Findings and recommendations: A blueprint to minimize deviant peer influence in youth interventions and programs. In K. A. Dodge, T. J. Dishion, & J. E. Lansford (Eds.), Deviant peer influences in programs for youth: Problems and solutions (pp. 366-394). New York: Guilford.
37. Dodge, K. A., Coie, J. D., & Lynam, D. (2006). Aggression and antisocial behavior in youth. In W. Damon & R. M. Learner (Series Eds.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 719-788). New York: John Wiley.
38. Doyle, W. (2006). Ecological approaches to classroom management. In C. Evertson & C. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 97-125). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
39. Durlak, J. A., Taylor, R. D., Kawashima, K., Pachan, M. K., DuPre, E. P., & Celio, C. I., et al. (2007). Effects of positive youth development programs on school, family, and community systems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39, 269-286.
40. Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B.(in press) The impact of enhancing students' social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development.
41. Eccles, J. S., & Harold, R. D. (1993). Parent school involvement during the early adolescent years. Teachers College Record, 94, 568-587.
42. Eccles, J. S., Lord, S., & Buchanan, C. M. (1996). School transitions in early adolescence: What are we doing to our young people? In J. A. Graber, & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Transitions through adolescence (pp. 251-284). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
43. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Prosocial behavior. In W. Damon & R. M. Learner (Series Eds.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 646-718). New York: John Wiley.
44. Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (1982). Effective management at the beginning of the year in junior high classes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 485-498.
45. Evertson, C. M., Emmer, E. T., Sanford, J. P., & Clements, B. S. (1983). Improving classroom management: An experiment in elementary classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 84, 173-188.
46. Fixen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blasé, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature (FMHI Pub. No. 231). Tampa: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, National Implementation Research Network.
47. Flannery, D. J., Vazsonyi, A. T., Liau, A., Guo, S., Powell, K. E., & Atha, H. (2003). Initial behavior outcomes for PeaceBuilders universal violence prevention program. Developmental Psychology, 39, 292-308.
48. Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59-109.
49. Freiberg, H. J. (1999). Beyond behaviorism: Changing the classroom management paradigm. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Frey, K., Hirschstein, M. K., Snell, J. L., Van Schoiack-Edstrom, L. V.,
50. MacKenzie, E. P., & Broderick, C. J. (2005). Reducing playground bullying and supporting beliefs: An experimental trial of the Steps to Respect program. Developmental Psychology, 41, 479-491.
51. Frey, K., Nolen, S. B., Van Schoiack-Edstrom, L. V., & Hirschstein, M. K. (2005). Effects of a school-based social-emotional competence program: Linking children's goals, attributions, and behavior. Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 171-200.
52. Friesen, B., & Osher, T. (1996). Involving families in change: Challenges and opportunities. Special Services in the Schools, 11(1/2), 187-207.
53. Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching. New York: Teachers College Press.
54. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.
55. Goodenow, C. (1993). The psychological sense of school membership among adolescents: Scale development and educational correlates. Psychology in the Schools, 30, 79-90.
56. Gottfredson, G. D., Gottfredson, D. C., Czeh, E. R., Cantor, D., Crosse, S. B., & Hantman, I. (2000, July). National study of delinquency prevention in schools. Ellicott City, MD: Gottfredson Associates.
57. Gottfredson, G., Gottfredson, D., Payne, A., & Gottfredson, N. (2005). School climate predictors of school disorder: Results from a national study of delinquency prevention in schools. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42, 412-444.
58. Greenberg, M. T., Domitrovich, C., & Bumbarger, B. (2001). The prevention of mental disorders in school-aged children: Current state of the field. Prevention & Treatment, 4, Article 1.
59. Greenberg, M. T., & Kusche, C. A. (2006). Building social and emotional competence: The PATHS curriculum. In S. R. Jimerson & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of school violence and school safety (pp. 395-412). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
60. Greenberg, M. T., Kusche, C. A., & Riggs, N. (2004). The PATHS curriculum: Theory and research on neurocognitive development and school success. In J. E. Zins, R. P. Weissberg, M. C. Wang, & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? (pp. 170-188). New York: Teachers College Press.
61. Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Noguera, P. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two sides of the same coin? Educational Researcher, 39, 59-68.
62. Grossman, D. C., Neckerman, H. J., Koepsell, T. D., Liu, P.-Y., Asher, K. N., & Beland, K., et al. (1997). Effectiveness of a violence prevention curriculum among children in elementary school: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 1605-1611.
63. Gump, P. V. (1969). Intra-setting analysis: The third grade classroom as a special but instructive case. In E. Willems & H. Raush (Eds.), Naturalistic viewpoints in psychological research (pp. 200-222). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
64. Gump, P. V. (1990). A short history of the Midwest Psychological Field Station. Environment and Behavior, 22, 436-457.
65. Hahn, R., Fuqua-Whitley, D., Wethington, H., Lowy, J., Crosby, A., & Fullilove, M., et al. (2007). Effectiveness of universal school-based programs to prevent violent and aggressive behavior: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(Suppl. 2S), 114-129.
66. Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2006). Student-teacher relationships. In G. G. Bear & K. M. Minke (Eds.), Children's needs III: Development, prevention, and intervention (pp. 59-71). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
67. Hamre, B. K., Pianta, R. C., Downer, J. T., & Mashburn, A. J. (2008). Teachers' perceptions of conflict with young students: Looking beyond problem behaviors. Social Development, 17(1), 115-136.
68. Harter, S. (2006). The self. In W. Damon & R. M. Learner (Series Eds.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 505-570). New York: John Wiley.
69. Hawkins, J. D., Farrington, D. P., & Catalano, R. F. (1998). Reducing violence through the schools. In D. S. Elliott, B. A. Hamburg, & K. R. Williams (Eds.), Violence in American schools (pp. 188-216). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
70. Hawkins, J. D., Smith, B. H., & Catalano, R. F. (2004). Social development and social and emotional learning. In J. E. Zins, R. P. Weissberg, M. C. Wang, & H. J. Walberg, (Eds.), Building academic success on social and emotional learning. What does the research say? (pp. 135-150). New York: Teachers College Press.
71. Hawkins, J. D., Smith, B. H., Hill, K. G., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., & Abbott, R. D. (2007). Promoting social development and preventing health and behavior problems during the elementary grades: Results from the Seattle Social Development Project. Victims and Offenders, 2, 161-181.
72. Haynes, N. M., Emmons, C., & Ben-Avie, M. (1997). School climate as a factor in student adjustment and achievement. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 8, 321-329.
73. Hemphill, S. A., Toumbourou, J. W., Herrenkohl, T. I., McMorris, B. J., & Catalano, R. F. (2006). The effect of school suspensions and arrests on subsequent adolescent antisocial behavior in Australia and the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 736-744.
74. Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
75. Horner, R., & Sugai, G. (2007). Is school-wide positive behavior support an evidence-based practice? Retrieved January 10, 2009, from http:// www.pbismaryland.org/documents/Evidence%20base%20for%20 SWPBS%2009-22-07%20GS.pdf
76. Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Smolkowski, K., Eber, L., Nakasato, J., & Todd, A. W., et al. (2009). A randomized, wait-list controlled effectiveness trial assessing school-wide positive behavior support in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions, 11, 133-144.
77. Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Todd, A. W., & Lewis-Palmer, T. (2005). School-wide positive behavior support: An alternative approach to discipline in schools. In L. Bambara & L. Kern (Eds.), Positive behavior support (pp. 359-390). New York: Guilford.
78. Ialongo, N., Poduska, J., Werthamer, L., & Kellam, S. G. (2001). The distal impact of two first-grade preventive interventions on conduct problems and disorder in early adolescence. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 9, 146-160.
79. Irvin, L. K., Tobin, T. J., Sprague, J. R., Sugai, G., & Vincent, C. G. (2004). Validity of office discipline referral measures as indices of school-wide behavioral status and preventive effects of school-wide behavioral interventions. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6, 131-147.
80. Kauffman, J. M. (1999). How we prevent the prevention of emotional and behavioral disorders. Exceptional Children, 65, 448-469.
81. Kellam, S. G., Mayer, L. S., Rebok, G. W., & Hawkins, W. E. (1998). The effects of improving achievement on aggressive behavior and of improving aggressive behavior on achievement through two prevention interventions: An investigation of causal paths. In B. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress, and psychopathology (pp. 486-505). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
82. Kellam, S. G., & Rebok, G. W. (1992). Building developmental and etiological theory through epidemiologically based preventive intervention trials. In J. McCord & R. E. Tremblay (Eds.), Preventing antisocial behavior: Interventions from birth through adolescence (pp. 162-195). New York: Guilford.
83. Kellam, S. G., & Van Horn, Y. V. (1997). Life course development, community epidemiology, and preventive trials: A scientific structure for prevention research. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 177-188.
84. Kendziora, K., & Osher, D. (2009). Starting to turn schools around: The academic outcomes of the Safe Schools, Successful Students initiative. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research.
85. Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development: Vol. 2. The psychology of moral development. New York: Harper & Row.
86. Koth, C. W., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. J. (2008). A multilevel study of predictors of student perceptions of school climate: The effect of classroom-level factors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 96-104.
87. Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
88. Kounin, J. S., & Gump, P. V. (1974). Signal systems of lesson settings and the task related behavior of preschool children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 554-562.
89. Lösel, F., & Beelmann, A. (2003). Effects of child skills training in preventing antisocial behavior: A systematic review of randomized evaluations. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 587, 84-109.
90. Manning, M. A., & Bear, G. G. (2002). Are children's concerns about punishment related to their aggression? Journal of School Psychology, 40, 523-539.
91. Mayer, G. R. (1995). Preventing antisocial behavior in the schools. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 467-478.
92. Mayer, G. R., & Butterworth, T. (1995). A preventive approach to school violence and vandalism: An experimental study. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 57(9), 436-441.
93. McNeely, C. A., & Falci, C. (2004). School connectedness and the transition into and out of health risk behavior among adolescents: A comparison of social belonging and teacher support. Journal of School Health, 74, 284-292.
94. Meehan, B. T., Hughes, J. N., & Cavell, T. A. (2003). Teacher-student relationships as compensatory resources for aggressive children. Child Development, 74, 1145-1157.
95. Meichenbaum, D. (1977). Cognitive-behavior modification. New York: Plenum.
96. Metzler, C. W., Biglan, A., Rusby, J. C., & Sprague, J. R. (2001). Evaluation of a comprehensive behavior management program to improve school-wide positive behavior support. Education and Treatment of Children, 24, 448-479.
97. Morrison, G. M., Anthony, S., Storino, M. H., Cheng, J., Furlong, M. J., & Morrison, R. L. (2001). School expulsion as a process and an event: Before and after effects on children at-risk for school discipline. In R. Skiba & G. Noam (Eds.), New directions for youth development (pp. 45-71). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
98. Morrison, G. M., Redding, M., Fisher, E., & Peterson, R. (2006). Assessing school discipline. In S. R. Jimerson & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of school violence and school safety (pp. 211-220). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
99. Osher, D., Cartledge, G., Oswald, D., Artiles, A. J., & Coutinho, M. (2004). Issues of cultural and linguistic competency and disproportionate representation. In R. Rutherford, M. Quinn, & S. Mather (Eds.), Handbook of research in behavioral disorders (pp. 54-77). New York: Guilford.
100. Osher, D., Dwyer, K., & Jimerson, S. (2005). Foundations of school violence and safety. In S. R. Jimerson & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of school violence and school safety (pp. 51-71). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
101. Osher, D., & Kane, M. (1993). Describing and studying innovations in the education of children with attention deficit disorder. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
102. Osher, D., & Kendziora, K. (in press). Building conditions for learning and healthy adolescent development: Strategic approaches. In B. Doll, W. Pfohl, & J. Yoon (Eds.), Handbook of youth prevention science. New York: Routledge.s
103. Osher, D., Morrison, G., & Bailey, W. (2003). Exploring the relationship between student mobility and dropout among students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Negro Education, 72, 79-96.
104. Osher, D., Sprague, J., Weissberg, R. P., Axelrod, J., Keenan, S., & Kendziora, K., et al. (2008). A comprehensive approach to promoting social, emotional, and academic growth in contemporary schools. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology (pp. 1263-1278). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
105. Osher, D., Woodruff, D., & Sims, A. (2002). Schools make a difference: The relationship between education services for African American children and youth and their overrepresentation in the juvenile justice system. In D. Losen (Ed.), Minority issues in special education (pp. 93-116). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Publishing Group.
106. Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students' need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70, 323-367.
107. Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., & Parker, J. G. (2006). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. In W. Damon & R. M. Learner (Series Eds.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 571-645). New York: John Wiley.
108. Ryan, A. M., & Patrick, H. (2001). The classroom social environment and changes in adolescents' motivation and engagement during middle school. American Educational Research Journal, 38, 437-460.
109. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
110. Saarni, C. (1999). The development of emotional competence. New York: Guilford.
111. Schaps, E., Battistich, V., & Solomon, D. (1997). School as a caring community: A key to character education. In A. Molnar (Ed.), The construction of children's character (Ninety-sixth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 2). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
112. Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E., Bryk, A. S., Easton, J. Q., & Luppescu, S. (2006). The essential supports for school improvement. Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School Research.
113. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (Eds.). (2000). Positive psychology [Special issue]. American Psychologist, 55(1).
114. Skiba, R. J., Michael, R., Nardo, A., & Peterson, R. (2000). The color of discipline: Gender and racial disparities in school punishment. Bloomington: Indiana Education Policy Center.
115. Skiba, R. J., Peterson, R. L., & Williams, T. (1997). Office referrals and suspension: Disciplinary intervention in middle schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 20, 1-21.
116. Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
117. Spivack, G., Platt, J. J., & Shure, M. B. (1976). The problem-solving approach to adjustment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
118. Sprague, J., & Golly, A. (2004). Best behavior: Building positive behavior support in schools. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
119. Sprague, J. R., Walker, H., Golly, A., White, K., Myers, D. R., & Shannon, T. (2002). Translating research into effective practice: The effects of a universal staff and student intervention on key indicators of school safety and discipline. Education and Treatment of Children, 24, 495-511.
120. Stams, G. J., Brugman, D., Dekovic, M., van Rosmalen, L., van der Laan, P., & Gibbs, J. C. (2006). The moral judgment of juvenile delinquents: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 697-713.
121. Sugai, G., & Fabre, T. R. (1987). The behavior teaching plan: A model for developing and implementing behavior change programs. Education and Treatment of Children, 10, 279-290.
122. Sugai, G., Horner, R. H., & Gresham, F. (2002). Behaviorally effective environments. In M. R. Shinn, H. M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 315-350). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
123. Thomas, D. E., Bierman, K. L., Thompson, C., & Powers, C. J. (2008). Double jeopardy: Child and school characteristics that predict aggressive-disruptive behavior in first grade. School Psychology, 37, 516-532.
124. Thuen, E., & Bru, E. (2009). Are changes in students' perceptions of the learning environment related to changes in emotional and behavioural problems? School Psychology International, 30, 115-136.
125. Townsend, B. L. (2000). The disproportionate discipline of African-American learners: Reducing school suspensions and expulsions. Exceptional Children, 66, 381-391.
126. Turnbull, R. H. I. (1999). Two case studies of functional assessment andfunctional support: Idea compliance and capacity-building issues. In A. C. Repp & R. H. Horner (Eds.), Functional analysis of problem behavior (pp. 321-337). Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth.
127. Walker, H. M., & Buckley, N. K. (1974). Token reinforcement techniques: Classroom applications for the hard to teach child. Eugene, OR: E-B Press.
128. Warren, K., Schoppelrey, S., Moberg, D. P., & McDonald, M. (2005). A model of contagion through competition in the aggressive behaviors of elementary school students. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 283-292.
129. Waters, E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1983). Social competence as a developmental construct. Developmental Review, 3, 79-97.
130. Watson, M. (with Ecken, L.). (2003). Learning to trust: Transforming difficult elementary classrooms through developmental discipline. Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass.
131. Watson, M., & Battistich, V. (2006). Building and sustaining caring communities. In C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management (pp. 253-280). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
132. Weissberg, R. P., Caplan, M., & Harwood, R. L. (1991). Promoting competent young people in competence-enhancing environments: A systems-based perspective on primary prevention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 830-841.
133. Wentzel, K. R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 202-209.
134. Wentzel, K. R. (2004). Understanding classroom competence: The role of social-motivational and self-processes. In R. V. Kail (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 32, pp. 213-241). San Diego: Elsevier.
135. Werner, E. E. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York: McGraw-Hill.
136. Wilson, D. B., Gottfredson, D. C., & Najaka, S. S. (2001). School based prevention of problem behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 17, 247-272.
137. Wilson, S. J., & Lipsey, M. W. (2007). School-based interventions for aggressive and disruptive behavior: Update of a meta-analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(Suppl. 2S), 130-143.
138. Wilson, S. J., Lipsey, M. W., & Derzon, J. H. (2003). The effects of school-based intervention programs on aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 136-149.
139. Zins, J. E., & Elias, M. J. (2006). Social and emotional learning. In G. Bears & K. Minke (Eds.), Children's needs III: Development, prevention, and intervention (pp. 1-14). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
140. Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (Eds.). (2004). Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? New York: Teachers College Press.