Vascular pharmacotherapy and dementia

Current Vascular Pharmacology

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 44-50

  Piguet, Olivier ^a,b   Garner, Brett ^a,b  

^a NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Atherosclerosis; Dementia; Diabetes; Hypertension; Lipid metabolism

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ASCORBIC ACID; CHOLESTEROL; CYANOCOBALAMIN; FOLIC ACID; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INSULIN; METFORMIN; NAPROXEN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR GAMMA AGONIST; PIOGLITAZONE; PYRIDOXINE; ROSIGLITAZONE; SULFONYLUREA DERIVATIVE; VITAMIN B GROUP;

AGING; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DEMENTIA; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; LIPID METABOLISM; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANIMALS; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS, NON-STEROIDAL; ANTICHOLESTEREMIC AGENTS; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; DEMENTIA; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; FATTY ACIDS, OMEGA-3; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; INSULIN; PPAR GAMMA; RISK FACTORS; VASCULAR DISEASES; VITAMINS;

EID: 77949530671     PISSN: 15701611     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157016110790226705     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Trends in aging - United States and worldwide. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003; 52: 101-4, 106.
2. Ferri CP, Prince M, Brayne C, Brodaty H, Fratiglioni L, Ganguli M, et al. Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study. Lancet 2005; 366: 2112-7.
3. Jorm AF, Jolley D. The incidence of dementia: a meta-analysis. Neurology 1998; 51: 728-33.
4. Qiu C, De Ronchi D, Fratiglioni L. The epidemiology of the dementias: an update. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2007; 20: 380-5.
5. McKhann G, Drachman D, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price D, Stadlan EM. Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease. Neurology 1984; 34: 939-44.
6. Binetti G, Magni E, Padovani A, Cappa SF, Bianchetti A, Trabucchi M. Executive dysfunction in early Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1996; 60: 91-3.
7. Stokholm J, Vogel A, Gade A, Waldemar G. Heterogeneity in executive impairment in patients with very mild Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2006; 22: 54-9.
8. Knibb JA, Kipps CM, Hodges JR. Frontotemporal dementia. Curr Opin Neurol 2006; 19: 565-71.
9. Graham A, Davies R, Xuereb J, Halliday G, Kril J, Creasey H, et al. Pathologically proven frontotemporal dementia presenting with severe amnesia. Brain 2005; 128: 597-605.
10. Amador-Ortiz C, Lin WL, Ahmed Z, Personett D, Davies P, Duara R, et al. TDP-43 immunoreactivity in hippocampal sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 2007; 61: 435-45.
11. Van Gool WA, Eikelenboom P. The two faces of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol 2000; 247: 500-5.
12. Holmes C, Cairns N, Lantos P, Mann A. Validity of current clinical criteria for Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia and dementia with Lewy bodies. Br J Psychiatry 1999; 174: 45-50.
13. Goate A, Chartier-Harlin MC, Mullan M, Brown J, Crawford F, Fidani L, et al. Segregation of a missense mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer's disease. Nature 1991; 349: 704-6.
14. Sherrington R, Rogaev EI, Liang Y, Rogaeva EA, Levesque G, Ikeda M, et al. Cloning of a gene bearing missense mutations in early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease. Nature 1995; 375: 754-60.
15. Rogaev EI, Sherrington R, Rogaeva EA, Levesque G, Ikeda M, Liang Y, et al. Familial Alzheimer's disease in kindreds with missense mutations in a gene on chromosome 1 related to the Alzheimer's disease type 3 gene. Nature 1995; 376: 775-8.
16. Levy-Lahad E, Wasco W, Poorkaj P, Romano DM, Oshima J, Pettingell WH, et al. Candidate gene for the chromosome 1 familial Alzheimer's disease locus. Science 1995; 269: 973-7.
17. Josephs KA. Frontotemporal dementia and related disorders: deciphering the enigma. Ann Neurol 2008; 64: 4-14.
18. Ferreira S, Fontoura P, Guerreiro R, Oliveira JP. Novel human pathological mutations. Gene symbol: NOTCH3. Disease: cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leucoencephalopathy (CADASIL). Hum Genet 2007; 121: 649-50.
19. Nasreddine ZS, Loginov M, Clark LN, Lamarche J, Miller BL, Lamontagne A, et al. From genotype to phenotype: a clinical pathological, and biochemical investigation of frontotemporal dementia and parkinsonism (FTDP-17) caused by the P301L tau mutation. Ann Neurol 1999; 45: 704-15.
20. Whitmer RA, Sidney S, Selby J, Johnston SC, Yaffe K. Midlife cardiovascular risk factors and risk of dementia in late life. Neurology 2005; 64: 277-81.
21. Launer LJ, Masaki K, Petrovitch H, Foley D, Havlik RJ. The association between midlife blood pressure levels and late-life cognitive function. The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. JAMA 1995; 274: 1846-51.
22. Carmelli D, Swan GE, Reed T, Miller B, Wolf PA, Jarvik GP, et al. Midlife cardiovascular risk factors, ApoE and cognitive decline in elderly male twins. Neurology 1998; 50: 1580-5.
23. Swan GE, DeCarli C, Miller BL, Reed T, Wolf PA, Jack LM, et al. Association of midlife blood pressure to late-life cognitive decline and brain morphology. Neurology 1998; 51: 986-93.
24. Kivipelto M, Helkala EL, Hanninen T, Laakso MP, Hallikainen M, Alhainen K, et al. Midlife vascular risk factors and late-life mild cognitive impairment: A population-based study. Neurology 2001; 56: 1683-9.
25. Qiu C, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. The age-dependent relation of blood pressure to cognitive function and dementia. Lancet Neurol 2005; 4: 487-99.
26. Cherubini A, Lowenthal DT, Paran E, Mecocci P, Williams LS, Senin U. Hypertension and cognitive function in the elderly. Am J Ther 2007; 14: 533-54.
27. Tzourio C, Anderson C, Chapman N, Woodward M, Neal B, MacMahon S, et al. Effects of blood pressure lowering with perindopril and indapamide therapy on dementia and cognitive decline in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 1069-75.
28. McGuinness B, Todd S, Passmore AP, Bullock R. Systematic review: blood pressure lowering in patients without prior cerebrovascular disease for prevention of cognitive impairment and dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008; 79: 4-5.
29. Messerli FH, Williams B, Ritz E. Essential hypertension. Lancet 2007; 370: 591-603.
30. Sparks DL, Scheff SW, Hunsaker JC 3rd, Liu H, Landers T, Gross DR. Induction of Alzheimer-like beta-amyloid immunoreactivity in the brains of rabbits with dietary cholesterol. Exp Neurol 1994; 126: 88-94.
31. Refolo LM, Malester B, LaFrancois J, Bryant-Thomas T, Wang R, Tint GS, et al. Hypercholesterolemia accelerates the Alzheimer's amyloid pathology in a transgenic mouse model. Neurobiol Dis 2000; 7: 321-31.
32. Wolozin B. Cholesterol and the biology of Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 2004; 41: 7-10.
33. Shobab LA, Hsiung GY, Feldman HH. Cholesterol in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol 2005; 4: 841-52.
34. Notkola IL, Sulkava R, Pekkanen J, Erkinjuntti T, Ehnholm C, Kivinen P, et al. Serum total cholesterol, apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele, and Alzheimer's disease. Neuroepidemiology 1998; 17: 14-20.
35. Jarvik GP, Wijsman EM, Kukull WA, Schellenberg GD, Yu C, Larson EB. Interactions of apolipoprotein E genotype, total cholesterol level, age, and sex in prediction of Alzheimer's disease: a case-control study. Neurology 1995; 45: 1092-6.
36. Piguet O, Grayson DA, Creasey H, Bennett HP, Brooks WS, Waite LM, et al. Vascular risk factors, cognition and dementia incidence over 6 years in the Sydney Older Persons Study. Neuroepidemiology 2003; 22: 165-71.
37. Anstey KJ, Lipnicki DM, Low LF. Cholesterol as a risk factor for dementia and cognitive decline: a systematic review of prospective studies with meta-analysis. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2008; 16: 343-54.
38. Jick H, Zornberg GL, Jick SS, Seshadri S, Drachman DA. Statins and the risk of dementia. Lancet 2000; 356: 1627-31.
39. Wolozin B, Kellman W, Ruosseau P, Celesia GG, Siegel G. Decreased prevalence of Alzheimer disease associated with 3-hydroxy-3-methyglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors. Arch Neurol 2000; 57: 1439-43.
40. Li G, Larson EB, Sonnen JA, Shofer JB, Petrie EC, Schantz A, et al. Statin therapy is associated with reduced neuropathologic changes of Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2007; 69: 878-85.
41. Haag MD, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Stricker BH, Breteler MM. Statins are associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer disease re gardless of lipophilicity. The Rotterdam Study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009; 80(1): 13-7.
42. Smeeth L, Douglas I, Hall AJ, Hubbard R, Evans S. Effect of statins on a wide range of health outcomes: a cohort study validated by comparison with randomized trials. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2009; 67: 99-109.
43. Vaughan CJ. Prevention of stroke and dementia with statins: Effects beyond lipid lowering. Am J Cardiol 2003; 91: 23B-29B.
44. Miida T, Takahashi A, Ikeuchi T. Prevention of stroke and dementia by statin therapy: experimental and clinical evidence of their pleiotropic effects. Pharmacol Ther 2007; 113: 378-93.
45. Haglund M, Passant U, Sjobeck M, Ghebremedhin E, Englund E. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy and cortical microinfarcts as putative substrates of vascular dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2006; 21: 681-7.
46. Kovari E, Gold G, Herrmann FR, Canuto A, Hof PR, Michel JP, et al. Cortical microinfarcts and demyelination significantly affect cognition in brain aging. Stroke 2004; 35: 410-4.
47. Kovari E, Gold G, Herrmann FR, Canuto A, Hof PR, Bouras C, et al. Cortical microinfarcts and demyelination affect cognition in cases at high risk for dementia. Neurology 2007; 68: 927-31.
48. Miklossy J. Cerebral hypoperfusion induces cortical watershed microinfarcts which may further aggravate cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Neurol Res 2003; 25: 605-10.
49. Munoz DG. The pathological basis of multi-infarct dementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1991; 5: 77-90.
50. Koldamova R, Lefterov I. Role of LXR and ABCA1 in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease - implications for a new therapeutic approach. Curr Alzheimer Res 2007; 4: 171-8.
51. Engelhart MJ, Geerlings MI, Ruitenberg A, Van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Witteman JC, et al. Diet and risk of dementia: does fat matter?: The Rotterdam Study. Neurology 2002; 59: 1915-21.
52. Van de Rest O, Geleijnse JM, Kok FJ, Van Staveren WA, Dullemeijer C, Olderikkert MG, et al. Effect of fish oil on cognitive performance in older subjects: a randomized, controlled trial. Neurology 2008; 71: 430-8.
53. Freund-Levi Y, Basun H, Cederholm T, Faxen-Irving G, Garlind A, Grut M, et al. Omega-3 supplementation in mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: effects on neuropsychiatric symptoms. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2008; 23: 161-9.
54. Heude B, Ducimetiere P, Berr C. Cognitive decline and fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes - The EVA Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 77: 803-8.
55. Schaefer EJ, Bongard V, Beiser AS, Lamon-Fava S, Robins SJ, Au R, et al. Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Heart Study. Arch Neurol 2006; 63: 1545-50.
56. Beydoun MA, Kaufman JS, Satia JA, Rosamond W, Folsom AR. Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 85: 1103-11.
57. Vedin I, Cederholm T, Freund LY, Basun H, Garlind A, Faxen IG, et al. Effects of docosahexaenoic acid-rich n-3 fatty acid supplementation on cytokine release from blood mononuclear leukocytes: the OmegAD study. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 87: 1616-22.
58. Ott A, Stolk RP, Hofman A, Van Harskamp F, Grobbee DE, Breteler MM. Association of diabetes mellitus and dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Diabetologia 1996; 39: 1392-7.
59. Schnaider BM, Goldbourt U, Silverman JM, Noy S, Schmeidler J, Ravona-Springer R, et al. Diabetes mellitus in midlife and the risk of dementia three decades later. Neurology 2004; 63: 1902-7.
60. Martins IJ, Hone E, Foster JK, Sunram-Lea SI, Gnjec A, Fuller SJ, et al. Apolipoprotein E, cholesterol metabolism, diabetes, and the convergence of risk factors for Alzheimer's disease and cardiovascular disease. Mol Psychiatry 2006; 11: 721-36.
61. Xiong GL, Plassman BL, Helms MJ, Steffens DC. Vascular risk factors and cognitive decline among elderly male twins. Neurology 2006; 67: 1586-91.
62. Biessels GJ, Kappelle LJ. Increased risk of Alzheimer's disease in Type II diabetes: insulin resistance of the brain or insulin-induced amyloid pathology? Biochem Soc Trans 2005; 33: 1041-4.
63. Sonnen JA, Larson EB, Brickell K, Crane PK, Woltjer R, Montine TJ, et al. Different patterns of cerebral injury in dementia with or without diabetes. Arch Neurol 2009; 66(3): 315-22.
64. Huber JD, VanGilder RL, Houser KA. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes progressively increases blood-brain barrier permeability in specific brain regions in rats. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006; 291: H2660-8.
65. Huber JD. Diabetes, cognitive function, and the blood-brain barrier. Curr Pharm Des 2008; 14: 1594-600.
66. Korf ES, White LR, Scheltens P, Launer LJ. Brain aging in very old men with type 2 diabetes: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 2268-74.
67. Landreth G, Jiang Q, Mandrekar S, Heneka M. PPARgamma agonists as therapeutics for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurotherapeutics 2008; 5: 481-9.
68. Kersten S, Desvergne B, Wahli W. Roles of PPARs in health and disease. Nature 2000; 405: 421-4.
69. Camacho IE, Serneels L, Spittaels K, Merchiers P, Dominguez D, De Strooper B. Peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor gamma induces a clearance mechanism for the amyloid-beta peptide. J Neurosci 2004; 24: 10908-17.
70. Risner ME, Saunders AM, Altman JF, Ormandy GC, Craft S, Foley IM, et al. Efficacy of rosiglitazone in a genetically defined population with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease. Pharmacogenomics J 2006; 6: 246-54.
71. Boyle PJ, King AB, Olansky L, Marchetti A, Lau H, Magar R, et al. Effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone on blood lipid levels and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a retrospective review of randomly selected medical records. Clin Ther 2002; 24: 378-96.
72. Goldberg RB, Kendall DM, Deeg MA, Buse JB, Zagar AJ, Pinaire JA, et al. A comparison of lipid and glycemic effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone in patients with type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 1547-54.
73. Watson GS, Craft S. The role of insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease: implications for treatment. CNS Drugs 2003; 17: 27-45.
74. Craft S, Watson GS. Insulin and neurodegenerative disease: shared and specific mechanisms. Lancet Neurol 2004; 3: 169-78.
75. Haan MN. Therapy Insight: type 2 diabetes mellitus and the risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 2006; 2: 159-66.
76. Reger MA, Watson GS, Frey WH 2nd, Baker LD, Cholerton B, Keeling ML, et al. Effects of intranasal insulin on cognition in memory-impaired older adults: modulation by APOE genotype. Neurobiol Aging 2006; 27: 451-8.
77. Reger MA, Watson GS, Green PS, Baker LD, Cholerton B, Fishel MA, et al. Intranasal insulin administration dose-dependently modulates verbal memory and plasma amyloid-beta in memoryimpaired older adults. J Alzheimers Dis 2008; 13: 323-31.
78. Reger MA, Watson GS, Green PS, Wilkinson CW, Baker LD, Cholerton B, et al. Intranasal insulin improves cognition and modulates beta-amyloid in early AD. Neurology 2008; 70: 440-8.
79. Halliday G, Robinson SR, Shepherd C, Kril J. Alzheimer's disease and inflammation: a review of cellular and therapeutic mechanisms. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2000; 27: 1-8.
80. Olichney JM, Hansen LA, Lee JH, Hofstetter CR, Katzman R, Thal LJ. Relationship between severe amyloid angiopathy, apolipoprotein E genotype, and vascular lesions in Alzheimer's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2000; 903: 138-43.
81. Weggen S, Eriksen JL, Das P, Sagi SA, Wang R, Pietrzik CU, et al. A subset of NSAIDs lower amyloidogenic Abeta42 independently of cyclooxygenase activity. Nature 2001; 414: 212-6.
82. Kinnecom C, Lev MH, Wendell L, Smith EE, Rosand J, Frosch MP, et al. Course of cerebral amyloid angiopathy-related inflammation. Neurology 2007; 68: 1411-6.
83. Eikelenboom P, Veerhuis R, Familian A, Hoozemans JJ, Van Gool WA, Rozemuller AJ. Neuroinflammation in plaque and vascular beta-amyloid disorders: clinical and therapeutic implications. Neurodegener Dis 2008; 5: 190-3.
84. Broe GA, Grayson DA, Creasey HM, Waite LM, Casey BJ, Bennett HP, et al. Anti-inflammatory drugs protect against Alzheimer disease at low doses. Arch Neurol 2000; 57: 1586-91.
85. Szekely CA, Breitner JC, Fitzpatrick AL, Rea TD, Psaty BM, Kuller LH, et al. NSAID use and dementia risk in the Cardiovascular Health Study: role of APOE and NSAID type. Neurology 2008; 70: 17-24.
86. Vlad SC, Miller DR, Kowall NW, Felson DT. Protective effects of NSAIDs on the development of Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2008; 70: 1672-7.
87. Martin BK, Szekely C, Brandt J, Piantadosi S, Breitner JC, Craft S, et al. Cognitive function over time in the Alzheimer's Disease Antiinflammatory Prevention Trial (ADAPT): results of a randomized, controlled trial of naproxen and celecoxib. Arch Neurol 2008; 65: 896-905.
88. Masters CL, Wyss-Coray T, Pasinetti GM. Anti-inflammatory drugs fall short in Alzheimer's disease. Nat Med 2008; 14: 916.
89. Grundman M, Grundman M, Delaney P. Antioxidant strategies for Alzheimer's disease. Proc Nutr Soc 2002; 61: 191-202.
90. Seshadri S, Beiser A, Selhub J, Jacques PF, Rosenberg IH, D'Agostino RB, et al. Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for dementia and Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 476-83.
91. Kontush K, Schekatolina S. Vitamin E in neurodegenerative disorders: Alzheimer's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004; 1031: 249-62.
92. Pratico D. Evidence of oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease brain and antioxidant therapy: lights and shadows. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1147: 70-8.
93. Engelhart MJ, Geerlings MI, Ruitenberg A, Van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Witteman JC, et al. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of Alzheimer disease. JAMA 2002; 287: 3223-9.
94. Clarke R, Smith AD, Jobst KA, Refsum H, Sutton L, Ueland PM. Folate, vitamin B12, and serum total homocysteine levels in confirmed Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 1998; 55: 1449-55.
95. Salonen JT. Clinical trials testing cardiovascular benefits of antioxidant supplementation. Free Radic Res 2002; 36: 1299-306.
96. Stocker R, Keaney JF, Jr. Role of oxidative modifications in atherosclerosis. Physiol Rev 2004; 84: 1381-478.
97. Kaul S, Zadeh AA, Shah PK. Homocysteine hypothesis for atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease: not validated. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 914-23.
98. Lonn E. Homocysteine in the prevention of ischemic heart disease, stroke and venous thromboembolism: therapeutic target or just another distraction? Curr Opin Hematol 2007; 14: 481-7.
99. Sesso HD, Buring JE, Christen WG, Kurth T, Belanger C, MacFadyen J, et al. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in men: the Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008; 300: 2123-33.
100. Boothby LA, Doering PL. Vitamin C and vitamin E for Alzheimer's disease. Ann Pharmacother 2005; 39: 2073-80.
101. Gray SL, Anderson ML, Crane PK, Breitner JC, McCormick W, Bowen JD, et al. Antioxidant vitamin supplement use and risk of dementia or Alzheimer's disease in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2008; 56: 291-5.
102. Isaac MG, Quinn R, Tabet N. Vitamin E for Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; (3): CD002854.
103. McMahon JA, Green TJ, Skeaff CM, Knight RG, Mann JI, Williams SM. A controlled trial of homocysteine lowering and cognitive performance. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 2764-72.
104. Balk EM, Raman G, Tatsioni A, Chung M, Lau J, Rosenberg IH. Vitamin B6, B12, and folic acid supplementation and cognitive function: a systematic review of randomized trials. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167: 21-30.
105. Aisen PS, Schneider LS, Sano M, Diaz-Arrastia R, Van Dyck CH, Weiner MF, et al. High-dose B vitamin supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008; 300: 1774-83.
106. Clarke RJ, Bennett DA. B vitamins for prevention of cognitive decline: insufficient evidence to justify treatment. JAMA 2008; 300: 1819-21.
107. Mills S, Cain J, Purandare N, Jackson A. Biomarkers of cerebrovascular disease in dementia. Br J Radiol 2007; 80 Spec No 2: S128-45.
108. Selvarajah J, Scott M, Stivaros S, Hulme S, Georgiou R, Rothwell N, et al. Potential surrogate markers of cerebral microvascular angiopathy in asymptomatic subjects at risk of stroke. Eur Radiol 2009;19(4):1011-8.
109. Casserly I, Topol E. Convergence of atherosclerosis and Alzheimer's disease: inflammation, cholesterol, and misfolded proteins. Lancet 2004; 363: 1139-46.
110. de la Torre JC. Is Alzheimer's disease a neurodegenerative or a vascular disorder? Data, dogma, and dialectics. Lancet Neurol 2004; 3: 184-90.
111. Deane R, Zlokovic BV. Role of the blood-brain barrier in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Curr Alzheimer Res 2007; 4: 191-7.
112. Launer LJ, Petrovitch H, Ross GW, Markesbery W, White LR. AD brain pathology: vascular origins? Results from the HAAS autopsy study. Neurobiol Aging 2008; 29: 1587-90.
113. Milionis HJ, Florentin M, Giannopoulos S. Metabolic syndrome and Alzheimer's disease: a link to a vascular hypothesis? CNS Spectr 2008; 13: 606-13.