Pharmacokinetics in special populations

Drug Metabolism Reviews

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 422-454

  Poggesi, Italo ^a   Benedetti, Margherita Strolin ^b   Whomsley, Rhys ^c   Lamer, Sophie Le ^b   Molimard, Mathieu ^d   Watelet, Jean Baptiste ^e  

^a GSK   (Italy)

^b UCB PHARMA   (Belgium)

^c Shire Pharmaceuticals   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITÉ DE BORDEAUX   (France)

^e GHENT UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Antiallergic drugs; Demographic covariates; Hepatic impairment; Milk transfer; Pharmacodynamics; Pharmacokinetics; Pregnancy; Renal impairment

Indexed keywords

BECLOMETASONE DIPROPIONATE; BUDESONIDE; CAREBASTINE; CETIRIZINE; DESLORATADINE; DIPHENHYDRAMINE; EBASTINE; FEXOFENADINE; FLUTICASONE FUROATE; FLUTICASONE PROPIONATE; KETOTIFEN; LEVOCETIRIZINE; LORATADINE; MIZOLASTINE; MOMETASONE FUROATE; MONTELUKAST; SALMETEROL; THEOPHYLLINE; TRIAMCINOLONE; ZAFIRLUKAST; ANTIALLERGIC AGENT;

ALCOHOL LIVER CIRRHOSIS; ALLERGIC DISEASE; ALLERGIC RHINITIS; AREA UNDER THE CURVE; ASTHMA; ATOPIC DERMATITIS; CHRONIC URTICARIA; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CREATININE CLEARANCE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DOSE CALCULATION; DOSE KIDNEY FUNCTION RELATION; DOSE LIVER FUNCTION RELATION; DOSE RESPONSE; DOSE TIME EFFECT RELATION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG ACETYLATION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG PURIFICATION; ENZYME ACTIVITY; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY; GLUCURONIDATION; HAY FEVER; HEART DISEASE; HEART OUTPUT; HEART PERFUSION; HUMAN; HYDROCORTISONE BLOOD LEVEL; HYPERTENSION; INULIN CLEARANCE; KIDNEY FAILURE; KIDNEY FUNCTION; LIVER FAILURE; LIVER METABOLISM; LIVER MICROSOME; LUNG FUNCTION; MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE CONCENTRATION; OBESITY; PERENNIAL RHINITIS; PLASMA HALF LIFE; PLASMA PROTEIN BINDING; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RECEPTOR OCCUPANCY; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; STRUCTURE ACTIVITY RELATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT RESPONSE; UREA NITROGEN BLOOD LEVEL; URINARY EXCRETION; URTICARIA; ADULT; AGE; ANIMAL; CHILD; DRUG DETOXIFICATION; HYPERSENSITIVITY; METABOLISM;

ADULT; AGE FACTORS; ANIMALS; ANTI-ALLERGIC AGENTS; CHILD; HEART DISEASES; HEPATIC INSUFFICIENCY; HUMANS; HYPERSENSITIVITY; METABOLIC DETOXICATION, DRUG; OBESITY; RENAL INSUFFICIENCY;

EID: 73449128736     PISSN: 03602532     EISSN: 10979883     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10837450902891527     Document Type: Review

References (206)

1. Afrime, M., Banfeld, C., Gupta, S., Cohen, A., Boutros, T., Tonoor, M., et al. (2002a). Efect of race and sex on single-and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of desloratadine. Clin Pharmacokinet 41(Suppl 1):21-28.
2. Afrime, M., Gupta, S., Banfeld, C., Cohen, A. (2002b). A pharma-cokinetic profle of desloratadine in healthy adults, including elderly. Clin Pharmacokinet 41(Suppl 1):13-19.
3. Ahmed, N., Mandel, R., Fain, M.J. (2007). Frailty: an emerging geriatric syndrome. Am J Med 120:748-753.
4. Akutsu, T., Kobayashi, K., Sakurada, K., Ikegaya, H., Furihata, T., Chiba, K. (2007). Identifcation of human cytochrome P450 iso-zymes involved in diphenhydramine N-demethylation. Drug Metab Dispos 35:72-78.
5. Alcorn, J., McNamara, P.J. (2008). Using ontogeny information to build predictive models for drug elimination. Drug Discov Today 13:507-512.
6. Anderson, B.J., Holford, NHG. (2008). Mechanism-based concepts of size and maturity in pharmacokinetics. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 48:303-332.
7. Anderson, B.J., Meakin, G.H. (2002). Scaling for size: some implications for paediatric anaesthesia dosing. Paediatr Anaesth 12:205-219.
8. Anderson, G.D. (2007). Pregnancy-induced changes in pharma-cokinetics: a mechanistic-based approach. Clin Pharmacokinet 4:989-1008.
9. Anger, G.J., Piquette-Miller, M. (2008). Pharmacokinetic studies in pregnant women. Clin Pharmacol Ter 83:184-187.
10. 1 receptor. Eur J Pharmacol 449:229-237.
11. Awni, W.M., Yeh, J., Halstenson, C.E., Opsahl, J.A., Chung, M., Matzke, G.R. (1990). Efect of haemodialysis on the pharmacoki-netics of cetirizine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 38:67-69.
12. Baltes, E., Coupez, R., Giezek, H., Voss, G., Meyerhof, C., Strolin Benedetti, M. (2001). Absorption and disposition of levocetirizine, the eutomer of cetirizine, administered alone or as cetirizine to healthy volunteers. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 15:269-277.
13. Bechtel, P., and Bechtel, Y. (2000). Pharmacogenetics of biotransfor-mations. In: Sirtori, C. (Ed.), Clinical Pharmacology (pp 25-36). London: McGraw-Hill International Ltd.
14. Bertilsson, L. (1995). Geographical/interracial diferences in polymorphic drug oxidation. Clin Pharmacokinet 29:192-209.
15. Bjorkman, S. (2004). Prediction of drug disposition in infants and children by means of physiologically based PK modeling: theo-phylline and midazolam as model drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol 59:691-704.
16. Bjorkman, S. (2006). Prediction of cytochrome p450-mediated hepatic drug clearance in neonates, infants, and children: how accurate are available scaling methods? Clin Pharmacokinet 45:1-11.
17. Blouin, R.A., Warren, G.W. (1999). Pharmacokinetic considerations in obesity. J Pharmaceut Sci 88:1-7.
18. Blyden, G.T., Greenblatt, D.J., Scavone, J.M., Shader, R.I. (1986). Pharmacokinetics of diphenhydramine and a demethylated metabolite following intravenous and oral administration. J Clin Pharmacol 26:529-533.
19. Bousquet, J., Bousquet, J., Khaltaev, N., Cruz, A.A., Denburg, J., Fokkens, W.J., et al. World Health Organization; GA(2)LEN; AllerGen. (2008). Allergic rhinitis and its impact on asthma 2008 update (in collaboration with World Health Organization, GA(2) LEN, and AllerGen). Allergy 63(Suppl 86):8-160.
20. Bouzom, F., Walther, B. (2008). Pharmacokinetic predictions in children by using the physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 22:579-587.
21. Boyle, J., Ridout, F., Meadows, R., Johnsen, S., Hindmarch, I. (2005). Suppression of the histamine-induced wheal and fare response by fexofenadine HCL 60 mg twice-daily, loratadine 10 mg once-daily, and placebo in healthy Japanese volunteers. Curr Med Res Opin 21:1495-1503.
22. Briggs, G.G., Freeman, R.K., Yafe, S.J. (2008). Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation: A Reference Guide to Fetal and Neonatal Risk. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.
23. Brockmöller, J., Roots, I. (1994). Assessment of liver metabolic function. Clinical implications. Clin Pharmacokinet 27:216-248.
24. Brockmöller, J., Tomsen, T., Wittstock, M., Coupez, R., Lochs, H., Roots, I. (2005). Pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam in patients with moderate to severe liver cirrhosis (Child-Pugh classes A, B, and C): characterization by dynamic liver function tests. Clin Pharmacol Ter 77:529-541.
25. Brocks, D.R., Upward, J., Hust, R., Köester, F.E., Collie, H., Qian, Y., et al. (1996). Te pharmacokinetics of pranlukast in healthy young and elderly subjects. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ter 34: 375-379. (Pubitemid 26305809)
26. Brutsche, M.H., Brutsche, I.C., Munawar, M., Langley, S.J., Masterson, C.M., Daley-Yates, P.T., et al. (2000). Comparison of pharmacokinetics and systemic efects of inhaled futicasone propionate in patients with asthma and healthy volunteers: a randomised crossover study. Lancet 356:556-561.
27. Caregaro, L., Menon, F., Angeli, P., Amodio, P., Merkel, C., Bortoluzzi, A., et al. (1994). Limitations of serum creatinine level and creatinine clearance as fltration markers in cirrhosis. Arch Intern Med 154:201-205.
28. Chang, T., Okerholm, R.A., Glazko, A.J. (1974). Identifcation of diphenhydramine metabolites in human subjects. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 9:391-404.
29. Cheng, W.S.C., Murphy, T.L., Smith, M.T., Cooksley, W.G.E., Halliday, J.W., Powell, L.W. (1990). Dose-dependent pharma-cokinetics of cafeine in humans: relevance as a test of quantitative liver function. Clin Pharmacol Ter 47:516-524.
30. Cheymol, G. (2000). Efects of obesity on pharmacokinetics. implications for drug therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet 39:215-231.
31. Cheymol, G., Jaillon, P. (1989). Te efect of cardiac insufciency on pharmacokinetics. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 82:391-397.
32. Ciprandi, G., Pistorio, A., Tosca, M., Ferraro, M.R., Cirillo, I. (2009). Body mass index, respiratory function, and bronchial hyper-reactivity in allergic rynithis and asthma. Respiratory Medicine 103:289-295.
33. Cockcroft, D.W., Gault, M.H. (1976). Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 16:31-41.
34. Cohn, J.N., Levine, T.B., Francis, G.S., Goldsmith, S. (1981). Neurohumoral control mechanisms in congestive heart failure. Am Heart J 102:509-514.
35. Collier, A.C., Ganley, N.A., Tingle, M.D., Blumenstein, M., Marvin, K.W., Paxton, J.W., et al. (2002). UDP-glucuronosyltransferase activity, expression, and cellular localization in human placenta at term. Biochem Pharmacol 63:409-419.
36. Collier, A.C., Tingle, M.D., Keelan, J.A., Paxton, J.W., Mitchell, M.D. (2000). A highly sensitive fuorescent microplate method for the determination of UDP-glucuronosyl transferase activity in tissues and placental cell lines. Drug Metab Dispos 28:1184-1186.
37. Cranswick, N., Turziková, J., Fuchs, M., Hulhoven, R. (2005). Levocetirizine in 1-2-year-old children: pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profle. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ter 43:172-177.
38. Creasy, R., Resnick, R. (1999). Maternal-Fetal Medicine. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
39. Cristescu, C., Voicu, M., Bunu, C. (2004). Particularities of pharma-cotherapy during pregnancy. Timisoara Med J. 52:201-206.
40. Croner, S. (1992). Prediction and detection of allergy development: infu-ence of genetic and environmental factors. J Pediatr 121:S58-S63.
41. Cutler, D.L., Banfeld, C., Afrime, M.B. (2006). Safety of mometasone furoate nasal spray in children with allergic rhinitis as young as 2 years of age: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatr Asthma Allerg Immunol 19:146-153.
42. Daley-Yates, P.T., Price, A.C., Sisson, J.R., Pereira, A., Dallow, N. (2001). Beclomethasone dipropionate: absolute bioavailabil-ity, pharmacokinetics, and metabolism following intravenous, oral, intranasal, and inhaled administration in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol 51:400-409.
43. Daly, A.K. (2003). Pharmacogenetics of the major polymorphic metabolizing enzymes. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 17:27-41.
44. Davison, J.M. (1987). Kidney function in pregnant women. Am J Kidney Dis 9:248-252.
45. Dawes, M., Chowienczyk, P.J. (2001). Drugs in pregnancy. Pharmacokinetics in pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 15:819-826.
46. 1 antihistamines in children: facts and unmeet needs. Allergy 63:1395-1404.
47. De Swert, L.F. (1999). Risk factors for allergy. Eur J Pediatr 158:89-94.
48. Dekhuijzen, R., Koopmans, P.P. (2002). Pharmacokinetic profle of zafrlukast. Clin Pharmacokinet 41:105-114.
49. 1-receptor antagonist cetirizine in very young children. Clin Pharmacol Ter 53:431-435.
50. Devine, B.J. (1974). Gentamycine therapy. Drug Intel Clin Pharm 8:650-655.
51. Dreisbach, A.W., Lertora, J.J. (2003). Te efect of chronic renal failure on hepatic drug metabolism and drug disposition. Sem Dial 16:45-50.
52. Drescher, S., Schaefeler, E., Hitzl, M., Hofmann, U., Schwab, M., Brinkmann, U., et al. (2002). MDR1 gene polymorphisms and disposition of the P-glycoprotein substrate fexofenadine. Br J Clin Pharmacol 53:526-534.
53. Drug Monographs. McGraw-Hill Available at: www.accessmedicine. com.
54. Dubois, D., Dubois, E.F. (1916). A formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known. Arch Intern Med 17:863-870.
55. Dwyer, J.H., Allayee, H., Dwyer, K., Fan, J., Wu, H., Mar, R., et al. (2004). Arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase promoter genotype, dietary arachidonoc acid, and atherosclerosis. New Engl J Med 350:29-37 2004
56. Edginton, A.N., Schmitt, W., Willmann, S. (2006). Development and evaluation of a generic physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for children. Clin Pharmacokinet 45:1013-1034.
57. ™ EC) capsules for Crohn's disease. Clin Pharmacokinet 43:803-821.
58. Edwards, J.A., Price, Evans DA. (1967). Ethanol metabolism in subjects possessing typical and atypical liver alcohol dehydroge-nase. Clin Pharmacol Ter 8:824-829.
59. El Desoky, E. (2007). Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic crisis in the elderly. Am J Ter 14:488-498.
60. Fält, A., Bengtsson, T., Kennedy, B., Gyllenberg, A., Lindberg, B., Torsson, L., et al. (2007). Exposure of infants to budeso-nide through breast milk of asthmatic mothers. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120:798-802.
61. Flegal, K.M., Carroll, M.D., Ogden, C.L., Johnson, C.L. (2002). Prevalence and trends in obesity among U.S. adults, 1999-2000. J Am Med Assoc 288:1723-1727.
62. Frederiksen, M.C. (2001). Physiologic changes in pregnancy and their efect on drug disposition. Sem Perinatol 25:120-123.
63. Ghosal, A., Yuan, Y., Hapangama, N., Achanfuo-Yeboah, J., Iannucci, R., Chowdhury, S., et al. (2004). Identifcation of human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzyme(s) responsible for the glucuronidation of 3-hydroxydesloratadine. Biopharm Drug Dispos 25:243-252. (Pubitemid 39294802)
64. 1 antagonists: receptor afnity versus selectivity. Infamm Res 52:S49-S50.
65. 1-antihistamines. Infamm Res 54:367-369.
66. 1 histamine receptors: contribution of Lys(191) and Tr(194). Mol Pharmacol 61:391-399.
67. Ginsberg, G., Hattis, D., Russ, A., Sonawane, B. (2004). Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling of cafeine and theo-phylline in neonates and adults: implications for assessing children's risks from environmental agents. J Toxicol Health A 67:297-329.
68. Goedde, H.W., Harada, S., Agarwal, D.P. (1979). Racial diferences in alcohol sensitivity: a new hypothesis. Hum Genet 51:331-334.
69. Guengerich, F.P. (2001). Common and uncommon cytochrome P450 reactions related to metabolism and chemical toxicity. Chem Res Toxicol 14:611-650.
70. Gupta, S., Kantesaria, B., Wang, Z., Khalilieh, S. (2004). Pharmacokinetics of desloratadine in poor metabolizers. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American College of Allergy in Boston, Massachusetts, USA (Abstract, p 249). November 12-17, 2004
71. Gupta, S., Khalilieh, S., Kantesaria, B., Banfeld, C. (2006). Pharmacokinetics of desloratadine in children between 2 and 11 years of age. Br J Clin Pharmacol 63:534-540.
72. Gupta, S.K, Kantesaria, B., Banfeld, C, Wang Z. (2007). Desloratadine dose selection in children aged 6 months to 2 years: comparison of population pharmacokinetics between children and adults. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 64:174-184.
73. Hakkola, J., Pasanen, M., Hukkanen, J., Pelkonen, O., Mäenpää, J., Edwards, R.J., et al. (1996a). Expression of xenobiotic-metab-olizing cytochrome P450 forms in human full-term placenta. Biochem Pharmacol 51:403-411. (Pubitemid 26071173)
74. Hakkola, J., Raunio, H., Purkunen, R., Pelkonen, O., Saarikoski, S., Cresteil, T., et al. (1996b). Detection of cytochrome P450 gene expression in human placenta in frst trimester of pregnancy. Biochem Pharmacol 52:379-383.
75. Halpern, S.A. (1998). American Pediatrics: the Social Dynamic of Professionalism, 1880-1980 (p 52). Berkeley, California, USA: University of California Press.
76. Hammerlein, A., Derendorf, H., Lowenthal, D.T. (1998). Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic changes in the elderly. Clinical Implications. Clin Pharmacokinet 35:49-64.
77. Han, P.Y., Dufull, S.B., Kirkpatrick, C.M.J., Green, B. (2008). Dosing in obesity: a simple solution to a big problem. Clin Pharmacol Ter 82:505-508.
78. Harada, S., Misawa, S., Agarwal, D.P., Goedde, H.W. (1980). Liver alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase in the Japanese: isozyme variation and its possible role in alcohol intoxication. Am J Hum Genet 32:8-15.
79. Hashizume, T., Mise, M., Terauchi, Y., O, L., Fujii, T., Miyazaki, H., et al. (1998). N-dealkylation and hydroxylation of ebastine by human liver cytochrome P450. Drug Metab Dispos 26:566-571.
80. Herman, H. (2007). Once-daily administration of intranasal corti-costeroids for allergic rhinitis: a comparative review of efcacy, safety, patient preference, and cost. Am J Rhinol 21:70-79.
81. Hilbert, J.M., Radwanski, E., Weglein, R., Luc, V., Perentesis, G., Symchowicz, S., et al. (1987). Pharmacokinetics and dose proportionality of loratadine. J Clin Pharmacol 27:694-698.
82. Hilli, J., Rane, A., Lundgren, S., Bertilsson, L. (2007). Genetic polymorphism of cytochrome P450s and P-glycoprotein in the Finnish population. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 21:379-386.
83. Hilmer, S.A., McLachlan, A.J., Le Couteur, DG. (2007). Clinical pharmacology in the geriatric patient. Fundament Clin Pharmacol 21:217-230.
84. Hodge, L.S., Tracy, T.S. (2007). Alterations in drug disposition during pregnancy. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 3:557-571.
85. Hofmeyer, S., Burk, O., von Richter, O., Arnold, H.P., Brockmöller, J., Johne, A., et al. (2000). Functional polymorphisms of the human multidrug-resistance gene: multiple sequence variations and correlation of one allele with P-glycoprotein expression and activity in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 3473-3478.
86. Holford, N.H. (1996). A size standard for pharmacokinetics. Clin Pharmacokinet 30:329-332.
87. Horsmans, Y., Desager, J.P., Hulhoven, R., Harvengt, C. (1993). Single-dose pharmacokinetics of cetirizine in patients with chronic liver disease. J Clin Pharmacol 33:929-932.
88. Hughes, S.C., Shardlow, P.C., Hollis, F.J., Scott, R.J., Motivaras, D.S., Allen, A., et al. (2008). Metabolism and disposition of futica-sone furoate, an enhanced-afnity glucocorticoid, in humans. Drug Metab Dispos 36:2337-2344
89. ICH, harmonized tripartite guideline. (July 20, 2000). Clinical Investigation of Medicinal Products in the Pediatric Population. International Conference on Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use. FDA site, accessed May 13, 2009 http://www.fda.gov/cder/guidance/4099FNL.PDF
90. Janeway, C., Travers, P., Walport, M., Shlomchik, M. (2001). Immunobiology. New York/London: Garland Science, e-book. ISBN: 0-8153-4101-6.
91. Janmahasatian, S., Dufull, S.B., Ash, S., Ward, L.C., Byrne, N.M., Green, B. (2005). Quantifcation of lean bodyweight. Clin Pharmacokinet 44:1061-1065.
92. Jarvis, D., Burney, P. (1997). Epidemiology of atopy and atopic disease. In: Kay, A.B. (Ed.), Allergy and Allergic Diseases (pp. 1208-1224). London: Blackwell Science.
93. Jeannesson, E., Albertini, L., Siest, G., Gomes, A-M., Ribeiro, V., Aslanidis, C., et al. (2007). Determination of ABCB1 polymorphisms and haplotypes frequencies in a French population. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 21:411-418.
94. Johnson, T.N. (2004). A comparison of methods to predict drug clearance in neonates, infants and children. Br J Clin Pharmacol 57:677-678.
95. Johnson, T.N. (2008). Te problems in scaling adult drug doses to children. Arch Dis Child 93:207-211.
96. Juniper, E.F., Ståhl, E., Doty, R.L., Simons, F.E.R., Allen, D.B., Howarth, P.H. (2005). Clinical outcomes and adverse efect monitoring in allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 115: S390-S413.
97. Juurlink, D.N., Mamdani, M., Kopp, A., Laupacis, A., Redelmeier, D.A. (2003). Drug-drug interactions among elderly patients hospitalized for drug toxicity. J Am Med Assoc 289:1652-1658.
98. Kasper, D.L., Braunwald, E., Fauci, A.S., Hauser, S.L., Longo, D.L., Jameson, JL. (Eds.) (2005). Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and uremia. In Harrison's Manual of Medicine,16th ed. (p 707). McGraw-Hill.
99. Katoh, M., Matsui, T., Yokoi, T. (2007). Glucuronidation of antiallergic drug, Tranilast: identifcation of human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase isoforms and efect of its phase I metabolite. Drug Metab Dispos 35:583-589.
100. Kearns, G.L., Abdel-Rahman, S.M., Alander, S.W., Blowey, D.L., Leeder, J.S., Kaufman, R.E. (2003). Developmental pharmacology-drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med 349:1157-1167.
101. Khalilieh, S., Lutsky, B., Lorber, R. (2004). Safety of desloratadine in poor metabolizers. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American College of Allergy in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, Abstract (p 248). November 12-17, 2004.
102. Kim, R.B., Leake, B.F., Choo, E.F., Dresser, G.K., Kubba, S.V., Schwarz, U.I., et al. (2001). Identifcation of functionally variant MDR1 alleles among European Americans and African Americans. Clin Pharmacol Ter 70:189-199.
103. Knorr, B., Holland, S., Schwartz, J., Douglas Rogers, J., Reiss, T.F. (2001). Clinical pharmacology of montelukast. Clin Exp Allergy Rev 1:254-260.
104. Koren, G., Cairns, J., Chitayat, D., Gaedigk, A., Leeder, S.J. (2006). Pharmacogenetics of morphine poisoning in a breastfed neonate of a codeine-prescribed mother. Lancet 368:704.
105. Kovacs, S.J., Tenero, D.M., Martin, D.E., Ilson, B.E., Jorkasky, D.K. (1999). Pharmacokinetics and protein binding of eprosartan in hemodialysis-dependent patients with end-stage renal disease. Pharmacotherapy 19:612-619.
106. Kuntz, H.D., Straub, H., May, B. (1983). Teophylline elimination in congestive heart failure. Klin Wochenschr 61:1105-1106.
107. Kusunoki, T., Morimoto, T., Nishikomori, R., Heike, T., Ito, M., Hosoi, S., et al. (2008). Obesity and the prevalence of allergic diseases in schoolchildren. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 19:527-534.
108. Lafte, P., Andre, F., Dijols, S., Dansette, P.M., Zeldin, D.C., Mansuy, D. (2006). Fingerprints of human cytochrome P450 2J2 active site: substrates hydroxylation regioselectivity and molecular modeling. 16th International Symposium on Microsomes and Drug Oxidations, Abstract book: 85 (PS-YIW-1). 3-7 September 2006, Budapest, Hungary.
109. Lasseter, K.C., Dilzer, S.C., Vargas, R., Waldman, S., Noveck, R.J. (2004). Pharmacokinetics and safety of ebastine in patients with impaired hepatic function compared with healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacokinet 43:121-129.
110. Lebrun-Vignes, B., Diquet, B., Chosidow, O. (2001). Clinical pharma-cokinetics of mizolastine. Clin Pharmacokinet 40:501-507.
111. Lee, D.K., Gardiner, M., Haggart, K., Fujihara, S., Lipworth, B.J. (2004). Comparative efects of desloratadine, fexofenadine, and levocetirizine on nasal adenosine monophosphate challenge in patients with perennial allergic rhinitis. Clin Exp Allergy 34:650-653.
112. Lee, J.B., Winstead, P.S., Cook, A.M. (2006). Pharmacokinetic alterations in obesity. Orthopedics 29:984-988.
113. Lin, C.C., Radwanski, E., Afrime, M., Cayen, M. (1995). Pharmacokinetics of loratadine in pediatric subjects. Am J Ter 2:504-508.
114. Loebstein, R., Koren, G. (2002). Clinical relevance of therapeutic drug monitoring during pregnancy.Ter Drug Monit 24:15-22.
115. Loebstein, R., Lalkin, A., Koren, G. (1997). Pharmacokinetic changes during pregnancy and their clinical relevance. Clin Pharmacokinet 33:328-343.
116. Loebstein, R., Lalkin, A., Koren, G. (2001). Pharmacokinetic changes during pregnancy and their clinical relevance. In: Maternal-Fetal Toxicology: A Clinician's Guide. New York: Informa Health Care.
117. Mahmood, I. (2006). Prediction of drug clearance in children from adults; a comparison of several allometric methods. Br J Clin Pharmacol 61:545-557.
118. Makino, Y., Osada, K., Sone, H., Sugiyama, K., Komai, M., Ito, M., et al. (1999). Percutaneous absorption of biotin in healthy subjects and in atopic dermatitis patients. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 45:347-352.
119. Mallet, L., Spinewhine, A., Huang, A. (2007). Te challenge of managing drug interactions in elderly people. Lancet 370:185-191.
120. Martin, D.E., Chapelsky, M.C., Ilson, B., Tenero, D., Boike, S.C., Zarifa, N., et al. (1998). Pharmacokinetics and protein binding of eprosartan in healthy volunteers and in patients with varying degrees of renal impairment. J Clin Pharmacol 38: 129-137.
121. Matzke, G.R., Yeh, J., Awni, W.M., Halstenson, C.E., Chung, M. (1987). Pharmacokinetics of cetirizine in the elderly and patients with renal insufciency. Ann Allergy 59:25-30.
122. McCormack, P.L., Scott, L.J. (2007). Fluticasone furoate. Intranasal use in allergic rhinitis. Drugs 67:1905-1915.
123. McNamara, P., Alcorn, J. (2002). Protein binding predictions in infants. AAPS PharmSci 4:1-8. Available at: http:/www.aapsp-harmsci.org. Accessed May 13, 2009.
124. Meyer, U.A. (2000). Pharmacogenetics and adverse drug reactions. Te Lancet 356:1667-1671.
125. Meltzer, E.O., Gillman, S.A. (2007). Efcacy of fexofenadine vs. desloratadine in suppressing histamine-induced wheal and fare. Allergy Asthma Proc 28:67-73.
126. Molimard, M., Diquet, B., Strolin, Benedetti M. (2004). Comparison of pharmacokinetics and metabolism of desloratadine, fex-ofenadine, levocetirizine, and mizolastine in humans. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 18:399-411.
127. Molino, G., Cavanna, A., Avagnina, P., Ballaré, M., Torchio, M. (1987). Hepatic clearance of D-sorbitol. Noninvasive test for evaluating functional liver plasma fow. Digest Dis Sci 32:753-758.
128. Mosteller, R.D. (1987). Simplifed calculation of body-surface area. N Engl J Med 317:1098.
129. Motika, M.S., Zhang, J., Cashman, J.R. (2007). Flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 and human disease. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 3:831-845.
130. Ng, T.M., Munger, M.A., Lombardi, W.L., Doing, T.H., Ryujin, D.T., Young, D.C., et al. (2002). Chronically inhaled salmeterol improves pulmonary function in heart failure. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 40:140-145.
131. NIH. (1998). Clinical guidelines on the identifcation, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults-the evidence report. National Institutes of Health. Obes Res 6 (Suppl 2):51S-209S.
132. Erratum in: Obes Res 1998;6:464. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/ guidelines/obesity/ob-gdlns. htm. Accessed December 9, 2008.
133. Noiri, E., Ozawa, H., Fujita, T., Nakao, A. (2001). Pharmacokinetics of cetirizine in chronic hemodialysis patients: multiple-dose study. Nephron 89:101-104.
134. Noveck, R.J., Preston, R.A., Swan, S.K. (2007). Pharmacokinetics and safety of ebastine in healthy subjects and patients with renal impairment. Clin Pharmacokinet 46:525-534.
135. Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., Curtin, L.R., McDowell, M.A., Tabak, C.J., Flegal, K.M. (2006). Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. J Am Med Assoc 295:1549-1555.
136. Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., McDowell, M.A., Flegal, K.M. (2007). Obesity among adults in the United States-no change since 2003-2004. NCHS data brief no 1. Hyattsville, Maryland, USA: National Center for Health Statistics. Available at: http://www. cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db01.pdf. Accessed December 2, 2008.
137. Onrust, S.V., Lamb, H.M. (1998). Mometasone furoate. A review of its intranasal use in allergic rhinitis. Drugs 56:725-745.
138. Pacheco, L.D., Ghulmiyyah, L.M., Snodgrass, W.R., Hankins, GDV. (2007). Pharmacokinetics of corticosteroids during pregnancy. Am J Perinatol 24:79-82.
139. Papadakis, M.A., Arief, A.I. (1987). Unpredictability of clinical evaluation of renal function in cirrhosis. Prospective study. Am J Med 82:945-952.
140. Parant, F., Moulsma, M., Gagnieu, M.C., Lardet, G. (2005). Hydroxyzine and metabolites as a source of interference in car-bamazepine particle-enhanced turbidimetric inhibition immu-noassay (Petinia). Ter Drug Monit 27:457-462.
141. Pariente-Khayat, A., Rey, E., Dubois, M.C., Vauzelle-Kervroedan, F., Pons, G., D'Athis, P., et al. (1995). Pharmacokinetics of ceti-rizine in 2-to 6-year-old children. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ter 33:340-344.
142. Park, B.K. (1982). Assessment of the drug metabolism capacity of the liver. Br J Clin Pharmac 14:631-651.
143. Passalacqua, G., Altrinetti, V., Mariani, G., Falagiani, P., Mistrello, G., Brizzolara, R., et al. (2005). Pharmacokinetics of radiolabelled Par j 1 administered intranasally to allergic and healthy subjects. Clin Exp Allergy 35:880-883.
144. Patterson, S.E., Cohn, V.H. (1984). Hepatic drug metabolism in rats with experimental chronic renal failure. Biochem Pharmacol. 33:711-716.
145. Pearce, R.E., Leeder, J.S., Kearns, G.L. (2006). Biotransformation of futicasone: in vitro characterization. Drug Metab.Dispos 34:1035-1040.
146. Pentel, P., Benowitz, N. (1984). Pharmacokinetic and pharmacody-namic considerations in drug therapy of cardiac emergencies. Clin Pharmacokinet 9:273-308.
147. Piafsky, K.M., Sitar, D.S., Rangno, R.E., Ogilvie, R.I. (1977). Teophylline kinetics in acute pulmonary edema. Clin Pharmacol Ter 21:310-316.
148. Pichette, V., Leblond, F.A. (2003). Drug metabolism in chronic renal failure. Curr Drug Metab 4:91-103.
149. Pritchard-Davies, R., Gross, A.S., Shenfeld, G.M. (1994). Te efect of liver disease and food on plasma MEGX concentrations. Br J Clin Pharmac 37:298-301.
150. Ricketti, A.J. (2002). Allergic rhinitis. In: Grammer, L.C., Greenberger, P.A. (Eds.), Patterson's Allergic Diseases, 6th ed. (pp 159-178). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.
151. Ridout, F., Hindmarch, I. (2003). Te efects of acute doses of fex-ofenadine, promethazine, and placebo on cognitive and psy-chomotor function in healthy Japanese volunteers. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 90:404-410.
152. Rosenblut, A., Bardin, P.G., Muller, B., Faris, M.A., Wu, W.W., Caldwell, M.F., et al. (2007). Long-term safety of futicasone furoate nasal spray in adults and adolescents with perennial allergic rhinitis. Allergy 62:1071-1077.
153. Salazar, D.E., Corcoran, G.B. (1988). Predicting creatinine clearance and renal drug clearance in obese patients from estimated fat-free body mass. Am J Med 84:1053-1060.
154. Schenker, S., Yang, Y., Mattiuz, E., Tatum, D., Lee, M. (1999). Olanzapine transfer by human placenta. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 26:691-697.
155. Schwartz, J.B. (2007). Te current state of knowledge on age, sex, and their interactions on clinical pharmacology. Clin Pharmacol Ter 82:87-96
156. Shammas, F.V., Dickstein, K. (1988). Clinical pharmacokinetics in heart failure. An updated review. Clin Pharmacokinet 15:94-113.
157. Simons, F.E.R., Bergman, J.N., Watson, W.T.A., Simons, K.J. (1996). Te clinical pharmacology of fexofenadine in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 98:1062-1064.
158. 1-receptor antagonists, cetirizine and loratadine, in children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 11:116-119.
159. 1-receptor antagonists in skin and serum. J Allergy Clin Immunol 95:759-764.
160. 1 anti-histaminic activity of cetirizine and fexofenadine in allergic children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 14:207-211.
161. Simons, F.E.R., Simons, K.J. (2005). Levocetirizine: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in children age 6 to 11 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol 116:355-361.
162. 1-antihistamine dosing in children. Letters to the Editor. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1551-1554.
163. Simons, K.J., Watson, W.T.A., Martin, T.J., Chen, X.Y., Simons, FER. (1990). Diphenhydramine: pharmacokinetics and pharmaco-dynamics in elderly adults, young adults, and children. J Clin Pharmacol 30:665-671.
164. Simons, F.E.R., Watson, W.T.A., Minuk, G.Y., Simons, K.J. (1993). Cetirizine pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in primary biliary cirrhosis. J Clin Pharmacol 33:949-954.
165. Simpson, K.H., Stakes, F., Miller, M. (1988). Pregnancy delays paracetamol absorption and gastric emptying in patients undergoing surgery. Br J Anaesth 60:24-27.
166. Smelt, V.A., Upton, A., Adjaye, J., Payton, M.A., Boukouvala, S., Johnson, N., et al. (2000). Expression of arylamine N-acetyltransferases in preterm placentas and in human preim-plantation embryos. Hum Mol Genet 9:1101-1107.
167. Sotaniemi, E.A., Rautio, A., Bäckstrom, M., Arvela, P., Pelkonen, O. (1995). CYP3A4 and CYP2A6 activities marked by the metabolism of lignocaine and coumarin in patients with liver and kidney diseases and epileptic patients. Br J Clin Pharmac 39:71-76.
168. Spector, R., Choudhury, A.K., Chiang, C-K., Goldberg, M.J., Ghoneim, M.M. (1980). Diphenhydramine in orientals and caucasians. Clin Pharmacol Ter 28:229-234
169. Špicák, V., Dab, I., Hulhoven, R., Desager, J.P., Klánová, M., de Longueville, M., et al. (1997). Pharmacokinetics and pharmaco-dynamics of cetirizine in infants and toddlers. Clin Pharmacol Ter 61:325-330.
170. Spinewhine, A., Schmader, K.E., Barber, N., Hughes, C., Lapane, K.L., Swine, C., et al. (2007). Appropriate prescribing in elderly people: how well can it be measured and optimized? Lancet 370:173-184.
171. Stamatoyannopoulos, G., Chen, S-H., Fukui, M. (1975). Liver alcohol dehydrogenase in Japanese: high population frequency of atypical form and its possible role in alcohol sensitivity. Am J Hum Genet 27:789-796.
172. Stanaland, B.E. (2004). Once-daily budesonide aqueous nasal spray for allergic rhinitis: a review. Clin Ter 26:473-492.
173. Stange, J., Mitzner, S.R., Klammt, S., Freytag, J., Peszynski, P., Loock, J., et al. (2000). Liver support by extracorporeal blood purifcation: a clinical observation. Liver Transpl 6:603-613.
174. Stanley, E.L., Hume, R., Visser, T.J., Coughtrie, M.W. (2001). Diferential expression of sulfotransferase enzymes involved in thyroid hormone metabolism during human placental development. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:5944-5955.
175. Strolin Benedetti, M., Baltes, E. (2003). Drug metaboilsm and disposition in children. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 17:281-299.
176. Strolin Benedetti, M., Otoul, C., Whomsley, R., Watelet, J-B. (2008). Pharmacokinetics of levocetirizine in subjects with varying degrees of renal function. Abstracts from the 10th European Regional ISSX Meeting. Drug Metab Rev 40:147-148, 1-172.
177. 14C] levocetirizine, the R enantiomer of cetirizine, in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 57:571-582.
178. Strolin Benedetti, M., Tipton, K.F., Whomsley, R. (2007a). Amine oxidases and mono-oxygenases in the in vivo metabolism of xenobiotic amines in humans: has the involvement of amine oxidases been neglected? Fundam Clin Pharmacol 21:467-479. (Pubitemid 47404324)
179. Strolin Benedetti, M., Whomsley, R., Baltes, E. (2005). Diferences in absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of xenobi-otics between the paediatric and adult populations. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 1:447-471.
180. Strolin Benedetti, M., Whomsley, R., Baltes, E. (2006). Involvement of enzymes other than CYPs in the oxidative metabolism of xeno-biotics. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2:895-921.
181. Strolin Benedetti, M., Whomsley, R., Canning, M. (2007b). Drug metabolism
182. 14C-levetiracetam, a new antiepileptic agent, in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 59:621-630.
183. Sun, H., Frassetto, L., Benet, L.Z. (2006). Efects of renal failure on drug transport and metabolism. Pharmacol Ter 109:1-11.
184. Swartjes, J.M., van Geijn, H.P. (1998). Pregnancy and epilepsy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 79:3-11.
185. Syme, M.R., Paxton, J.W., Keelan, J.A. (2004). Drug transfer and metabolism by the human placenta. Clin Pharmacokinet 43:487-514.
186. Taburet, A.M., Singlas, E. (1996). Drug interactions with antiviral drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet 30:385-401.
187. Takabatake, T., Ohta, H., Ishida, Y., Hara, H., Ushiogi, Y., Hattori, N. (1988). Low serum creatinine levels in severe hepatic disease. Arch Intern Med 148:1313-1315.
188. Tomson, T., Palm, R., Källén, K., Ben-Menachem, E., Söderfeldt, B., Danielsson, B., et al. (2007). Pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam during pregnancy, delivery, in the neonatal period, and lactation. Epilepsia 48:1111-1116.
189. Touchette, M.A., Slaughter, R.L. (1991). Te efect of renal failure on hepatic drug clearance. DICP, Te Annals of Pharmacotherapy 25:1214-1224.
190. Tsutsumi, K., Kotegawa, T., Matsuki, S., Tanaka, Y., Ishii, Y., Kodama, Y., et al. (2001). Te efect of pregnancy on cytochrome P4501A2, xanthine oxidase, and N-acetyltransferase activities in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ter 70:121-125.
191. Ueda, C.T., Dzindzio, B.S. (1981). Bioavailability of quinidine in congestive heart failure. Br J Clin Pharmacol 11:571-577.
192. Vanholder, R., De Smet, R., Glorieux, G., Argilés, A., Baurmeister, U., Brunet, P., et al. (2003). Review on uremic toxins: classifca-tion, concentration, and interindividual variability. Kidney Int 63:1934-1943.
193. Varon, J., Marik, P. (2001). Management of the obese critically ill patient. Endocr Metabol Dysfunct Syndr Crit Ill 17:187-200.
194. Verstuyft, C., Schwab, M., Schaefeler, E., Kerb, R., Brinkmann, U., Jaillon, P., Funk-brentano, C., Becquemont L.(2003). Digoxin pharmacokinetics and MDR1 genetic polymorphisms. Euro J Clin Pharmacol 58:809-812. (Pubitemid 36577811)
195. Vidal, F., Perez, J., Panisello, J., Toda, R., Gutierrez, C., Richart, C. (1993). Atypical liver alcohol dehydrogenase in the Spanish population: its relation with the development of alcoholic liver disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 17:782-785.
196. von Wartburg, J.P., Schurch, P.M. (1968). Atypical human liver alcohol dehydrogenase. Ann N Y Acad Sci 151:936-946.
197. Watson, W.T.A., Simons, K.J., Chen, X.Y., Simons, FER. (1989). Cetirizine: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation in children with seasonal allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 84:457-464.
198. White, R., Manitpisitkul, P. (2001). Pharmacokinetic theory of cassette dosing in drug discovery. Drug Metab Dispos 29: 957-966.
199. Whomsley, R., Collart, P., Strolin Benedetti, M., Baltes, E., Nicolas, J-M. (2003). Stereoselectivity of cetirizine metabolism. Drug Metab Rev 35(Suppl 1):30.
200. 1 antihistamines: the importance of pharmacokinet-ics in the evaluation of safe and therapeutically efective agents. Curr Med Chem Anti-Infam Anti-Allergy Agents 4:451-464.
201. Whomsley, R., Strolin Benedetti, M., Espie, P., Usuki, E., Wolf, A., Baltes, E. (2005). Te conversion of hydroxyzine to cetirizine is mediated by alcohol dehydrogenase. Drug Metab Rev 37 (Suppl 2):390-391.
202. Wolf, P.H. (1972). Ethnic diferences in alcohol sensitivity. Science (Washington, DC) 175:449-450.
203. Wu, S., Moomaw, C.R., Tomer, K.B., Falck, J.R., Zeldin, D.C. (1996). Molecular cloning and expression of CYP2J2, a human cyto-chrome P450 arachidonic acid epoxygenase highly expressed in heart. J Biol Chem 271:3460-3468.
204. nd ed. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 3-9.
205. Zhao, J.J., Rogers, J.D., Holland, S.D., Larson, P., Amin, R.D., Haesen, R., et al. (1997). Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of montelukast sodium (MK-0476) in healthy young and elderly volunteers. Biopharm Drug Dispos 18:769-777.
206. Zitt, M., Kosoglou, T., Hubbell, J. (2007). Mometasone furoate nasal spray. Drug Saf 30:317-326.