Drug metabolism and disposition in children

Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology

Volumn 17, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 281-299

  Strolin Benedetti, M ^a   Baltes, E L ^a  

^a UCB PHARMA   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Absorption in children; Disposition in children; Drug metabolizing enzymes; Metabolism in children

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN; AMPICILLIN; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIHISTAMINIC AGENT; CLONAZEPAM; CYTOCHROME P450 1A2; CYTOCHROME P450 3A; CYTOCHROME P450 3A4; CYTOCHROME P450 3A7; DIAZEPAM; DIGITOXIN; ERYTHROMYCIN; FLUCLOXACILLIN; FUROSEMIDE; GLUCURONOSYLTRANSFERASE; GLYCOPROTEIN P; HISTAMINE H1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; HYDROLASE; N METHYLTRANSFERASE; NAFCILLIN; OXIDOREDUCTASE; PENICILLIN G; PHENYTOIN; PLASMA PROTEIN; SALICYLIC ACID; SULFAMETHOXYPYRIDAZINE; SULFONAMIDE; SULFONAMIDE SULFISOXAZOLE; TRANSFERASE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACETYLATION; AMINO ACID ANALYSIS; BACTERIAL COLONIZATION; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BLOOD FLOW; BODY WATER; BRAIN; CHILD; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CONCENTRATION (PARAMETERS); CONVULSION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG CONJUGATION; DRUG DISPOSITION; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG EXCRETION; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG PROTEIN BINDING; DUODENUM PH; ENZYME ACTIVITY; ENZYME ANALYSIS; EXTRACELLULAR FLUID; FAT CONTENT; FATIGUE; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION; GLUCURONIDATION; HUMAN; HYPERACTIVITY; INTESTINE; INTESTINE FLORA; INTESTINE TRANSIT TIME; IRRITABILITY; KERNICTERUS; KIDNEY TUBULE ABSORPTION; KIDNEY TUBULE EXCRETION; LETHARGY; LIVER; MATURATION; MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY; METHYLATION; NERVOUSNESS; POPULATION RESEARCH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN ANALYSIS; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SOMNOLENCE; STOMACH EMPTYING; STOMACH PH; SULFATION; URINARY EXCRETION;

ABSORPTION; CHILD; HUMANS; KIDNEY; LIVER; P-GLYCOPROTEIN; PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS; PHARMACOKINETICS; TISSUE DISTRIBUTION;

EID: 0037757933     PISSN: 07673981     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1472-8206.2003.00140.x     Document Type: Review

References (187)

1. Yaffe S.J., Aranda J.V. Introduction and historical perspectives, In: Daunders (Ed.) Pediatric pharmacology. (1992) pp. 3-9.
2. Butler D.R., Kuhn R.J., Chandler M.H.H. Pharmacokinetics of anti-infective agents in paediatric patients. Clin. Pharmacokin. (1994) 26 374-395
3. ICH harmonised tripartite guideline. Clinical investigation of medicinal products in the pediatric population. International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use, 20 July (2000).
4. Gilman J.T. Therapeutic drug monitoring in the neonate and paediatric age group - problems and clinical pharmacokinetic implications. Clin. pharmacokin. (1990) 19 1-10.
5. Rane A., Wilson J.T. Clinical pharmacokinetics in infants and children. Clin. Pharmacokin. (1976) 2 2-24.
6. Morselli P.L. Clinical pharmacokinetics in neonates. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (1976) 1 81-98.
7. Stewart C.F., Hampton E.M. Effect of maturation on drug disposition in pediatric patients. Clin. Pharm. (1987) 6 548-564.
8. Huang N.N., High R.H. Comparison of serum levels following the administration of oral and parenteral preparations of penicillin to infants and children of various age groups. J. Pediatr. (1953) 6 57-68.
9. Olive G. Pharmacocinétique et biotransformation des médicaments chez l'enfant. Louvain Med. (1991) 110 565-569.
10. Brown R.D., Campoli-Richards M. Antimicrobial therapy in neonates, infants and children. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (1989) 17 105-115.
11. Grand R.J., Watkins J.B., Torti F.M. Development of the human gastrointestinal tract: a review. Gastroenterology (1976) 70 790-810.
12. Kerlin P., Zinsmeister A., Phillips S. Relationship of motility to flow of contents in the human small intestine. Gastroenterology (1982) 82 701-706.
13. Pedersen S., Steffensen G. Absorption characteristics of once-a-day slow-release theophylline preparation in children with asthma. J. Pediatr. (1987) 110 953-959.
14. Pedersen S., Moeller-Petersen J. Influence of food on the absorption rate and bioavailability of a sustained release theophylline preparation. Allergy (1982) 37 531-534.
15. Szefler S.J. Erratic absorption of theophylline from slow-release products in children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1986) 78 710-715.
16. Rogers R.J., Kalisher A., Wiener M.B., Szefler S.J. Inconsistent absorption from a sustained-release theophylline preparation during continuous therapy in asthmatic children. J. Pediatr. (1985) 106 496-501.
17. Isles A.F., Newth C.J.L. Pharmacokinetics of a sustained-release theophylline preparation in infants and preschool children with asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1985) 75 377-381.
18. Routledge P.A. Pharmacokinetics in children. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1994) 34 19-24.
19. Buchanan N. Paediatric clinical pharmacology and therapeutics, in: Speight T.M. (Ed.), Avery's drug treatment: principles and practice of clinical pharmacology and therapeutics. 3rd edn, ADIS Press. Aukland. (1987). pp. 118-159.
20. Yaffe S.J., Juchau M.R. Perinatal pharmacology. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. (1974) 14 219-238.
21. Besunder J.B., Reed M.D., Blumer J.L. Principles of drug biodisposition in the neonate. A critical evaluation of the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic interface (Part 1). Clin. Pharmacokinet. (1988) 14 189-216.
22. Sereni F., Perletti L., Marabini E., Mars G. Pharmacokinetic studies with a long-acting sulphonamide in subjects of different ages. Pediatr. Res. (1968) 2 29-31.
23. Simons F.E., Fraser T.G., Reggin J.D., Roberts J.R., Simons K.J. Adverse central nervous system effects of older anti-histamines in children. Pediatr. Allergy. Immunol. (1996) 7 22-27.
24. Vuurman E.F., van Veggel L.M., Uiterwijk M.M., Leutner D., O'Hanlon J.F. Seasonal allergic rhinitis and antihistamine effects on children's learning. Ann. Allergy (1993) 71 121-126.
25. 1-antagonist, confirmed by the use of d-chlorpheniramine with monitoring electroencephalography. Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol. (1993) 15 183-188.
26. Anderson B.J., McKee A.D., Holford H.G. Size myths and the clinical pharmacokinetics of analgesia in paediatric patients. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (1977) 33 313-327.
27. Gilman J.T., Gal P. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data collection in children and neonates-a quiet frontier. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (1992) 23 1-9.
28. Milsap R.L., Szefier S.J. Special pharmacokinetic considerations in children, in: Evans (Eds.), Applied pharmacokinetics: principles of therapeutic drug monitoring. 2nd edn. Applied Therapeutics. Spokane, (1986), pp. 294-330.
29. Rane A., Lunde P.K.M., Jalling B., Yaffe J., Sjöqvist F. Plasma protein binding of diphenylhydantoin in normal and hyperbilirufinemic infants. Pediatr. Pharmacol. Ther. (1971) 78 877-882.
30. Pacifici G.M., Viani A., Taddeucci-Brunelli G. Serum protein binding of furosemide in newborn infants and children. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1987) 10 413-421.
31. Pacifici G.M., Taddeucci-Brunelli G., Rane A. Clonazepam serum protein binding during development. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1984) 35 354-359.
32. Ehrnebo M., Agurell S., Jalling B., Boreus L.O. Age differences in drug binding by plasma proteins: studies on human foetuses, neonates and adults. J. Eur. Clin. Pharmacol. (1971) 3 189-193.
33. Kurz H., Michels H., Stickel H.H. Differences in the binding of drugs to plasma proteins from newborn to adult man. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1977) 11 469-472.
34. Piafsky K.M., Mpamuga L. Depedence of neonatal drug binding on α-acid glycoprotein concentration. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1981) 29 272 (abstract).
35. Viani A., Pacifici G.M. Quantitative contribution of endogenous compounds and hypoalbuminemia in reducing the binding of furosemide in the plasma of newborn infants. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1992) 18 39-43.
36. Hyvarinen M., Zelter P., Oh V., Stiehm E.R. Influence of gastrointestinal age on serum levels of alpha-1 fetoprotein. IgG globulin, and albumin in newborn infants. J. Pediatr. (1973) 82 430-437.
37. Morselli P.L., Franco-Morselli R., Bossi L. Clinical pharmacokinetics in newborns and infants: age-related differences and therapeutic implications. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (1980) 5 485-527.
38. Wallace S. Altered plasma albumin in the newborn infant. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1977) 4 83-85.
39. Viani A., Cappiello M., Pacifici G.M. Binding of diazepam, salicylic acid and digitoxin to albumin isolated from fetal and adult serum. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1991) 17 100-108.
40. Viani A., Cappiello M., Silvestri D., Pacifici G.M. Binding of furosemide to album idolated from human fetal and adult serum. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1991) 16 33-40.
41. Thiessen H., Jacobsen J., Brodersen R. Displacement of albumin-bound bilirubin by fatty acids. Acta Paediatr. Scand. (1972) 61 285-288.
42. Silverman W.A., Andersen D.H., Blanc W.A., Crozier D.N. A difference in mortality rate and incidence of kernicterus among premature infants alloted to two prophylaxis antibacterial regimens. Pediatrics (1956) 18 614-625.
43. Odell G.B. Studies in kernicterus: 1. The protein binding of bilirubin. J. Clin. Inves. (1959) 38 823-833.
44. Meistelman C., Benhamou D., Barre J, et al. Effects of age on plasma protein binding of sufentanil. Anesthesiology (1990) 72 470-473.
45. Aranda J.V., Sitar D.S., Parson W.D. Loughnan P.M., Neims A.H. Pharmacokinetic aspects of theophylline in premature newborns. N. Engl. J. Med. (1976) 295 413-416.
46. Shannon D.C., Gotay F., Stein I.M., Rogers M.C., Todres I.D., Moylan F.M. Prevention of apnea and bradycardia in low-birthweight infants. Pediatrics (1975) 55 589-594.
47. Aranda J.V. Maturation changes in theophylline and caffeine metabolism and disposition: clinical implications, in: Lemberger L., Reidenberg M.M. (Eds.), Proceedings 2nd World Conference on Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. July 31-August 5, 1983, p. 870
48. Gilman J.T., Gal P., Levine R.S., Hersch C.B., Erkan N.V. Factors influencing theophylline disposition in 179 newborns. Ther. Drug Monit. (1986) 8 4-10.
49. Muttitt S.C., Tierney A.J., Finer N.N. The dose response of theophylline in the treatment of apnea of prematurity. J. Pediatr. (1988) 112 115-121.
50. Friis-Hansen B. Body water compartments in children: changes during growth and related changes in body composition. Pediatrics (1961) 28 169-181.
51. Friis-Hansen B. In vivo measurements and biochemical data correlated to differential anatomical growth. Pediatrics (1961) 28 169-181.
52. Treluyer J.M., Pariente-Khayat A., Rey E, et al. Pharmacokinetics of flunitrazepam in neonates and infants. Fund. Clin. Pharmacol. (1997) 11 198.
53. Pariente-Khayat A., Treluyer J.M., Rey E. et al Pharmacokinetics and tolerance of flunitrazepam in neonates and infants. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1999) 6 136-139.
54. Bory C., Baltassat P., Porthault M., Bethenod M., Frederich A., Aranda J.V. Metabolism of theophylline to caffeine in premature newborn infants. J. Pediatr. (1979) 94 988-993.
55. Boutroy M., Vert P., Monin P., Royer R.J., Royer-Morrot M.J. Methylation of theophylline to caffeine in premature infants. Lancet (1979) 1 830.
56. Boutroy M., Vert P., Royer R.J., Monin P., Royer-Morrot M.J. Caffeine, a metabolite of theophylline during the treatment of apnea in the premature infant. J. Pediatr. (1979) 94 996-998.
57. Grygiel J.J., Birkett D.J. Effect of age on patterns of theophylline metabolism. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1980) 28 456-462.
58. Nahata M.C., Powell D.A., Franko T.G. Some infants receiving theophylline may have caffeine in serum. Ther. Drug. Monit. (1983) 5 269-270.
59. Tserng K.Y., Takieddine F.N., King K.C. Developmental aspects of theophylline metabolism in premature infants. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1983) 33 522-528.
60. Dreifuss F.E., Santilli N., Langer D.H., Sweeney K.P., Moline K.A., Menander K.B. Valproic acid hepatic fatalities: a retrospective review. Neurology (1987) 37 379-385.
61. Eadie M.J., Hooper W.D., Dickinson R.G. Valproate-associated hepatotoxicity and its biochemical mechanisms. Med. Toxicol. (1988) 3 85-106.
62. Scheffner D., Konig S., Rauterberg-Rulannd I., Kochen W., Hofmann W.J., Unkelbach S. Fatal liver failure in 16 children with valproate therapy. Epilepsia (1988) 16 530-542.
63. Dutton G.J. Developmental aspects of drug conjugation, with special reference to glucuronidation. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. (1978) 18 17-35.
64. Pacifici G.M., Romiti P., Giuliani L., Rane A. Thiopurine methyltransferase in humans: developmental and tissue distribution. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1991) 17 16-23.
65. Pacifici G.M., Rane A. Distribution of UDP-glucuroniltransferase in different human fœtal tissues. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1982) 13 732-735.
66. Pacifici G.M., Rane A. Metabolism of styrene oxide in different human fetal tissues. Drug. Metab. Dispos. (1982) 4 302-305.
67. Pacifici G.M., Temellini A., Giuliani L., Rane A., Thomas H., Oesch F. Cytosolic epoxide hydrolase in humans: development and tissue distribution. Arch. Toxicol. (1988) 62 254-257.
68. Pacifici G.M., Bencini C., Rane A. Acetyltransferase in humans: development and tissue distribution. Pharmacology (1986) 32 283-291.
69. Pacifici G.M., Franchi M., Colizzi C., Giuliani L., Rane A. Sulfotransferase in humans: development and tissue distribution. Pharmacology (1988) 36 411-419.
70. Cresteil T., Beaune P., Kremers P., Celier C., Guengerich P., Lerous J.P. Immunoquantification of epoxide hydrolase and cytochrome P-450 isozymes in fetal and adult human liver microsomes. Eur. J. Biochem. (1985) 5 345-350.
71. Treluyer J.M., Jacqz-Aigrain E., Alvarez F., Cresteil T. Expression of CYP2D6 in developing human liver. Eur. J. Biochem. (1991) 202 583-588.
72. Ladona M., Lindström B., Thyr C., Dun-Ren P., Rane A. Differential fœtal development of the O- and N-demethylation of codeine and dextromethorphan in man. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1991) 32 295-302.
73. Oesterheld J.R. A review of developmental aspects of cytochrome P450. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. (1998) 8 161-174.
74. Pelkonen O., Arvela P., Kärki N.T. 3,4-benzpyrene and N-methylaniline metabolizing enzymes in the immature human fœtus and placenta. Acta. Pharmacol. et Toxicol. (1971) 30 385-395.
75. Hakkola J., Pelkonen O., Pasanen M., Raunio H. Xenobiotic-metabolizing cytochrome P450 enzymes in the human fetoplacental unit: role in intrauterine toxicity. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. (1998) 28 35-72.
76. Sonnier M., Cresteil T. Delayed ontogenesis of CYP1A2 in the human liver. Eur. J. Biochem. (1998) 251 893-898.
77. Hakkola J., Raunio H., Purkonen R, et al. Cytochrome P450 3A expression in the human fetal liver: evidence that CYP3A5 is expressed in only a limited number of fetal livers. Biol. Neonate (2001) 80 193-201.
78. Wrighton S.A., Brian W.R., Sari M.A. et al. Studies on the expression and metabolic capacities of human liver cytochrome P450IIIA5 (HLp3). Mol. Pharmacol. (1990) 38 207-213.
79. Schuetz J.D., Beach D.L., Guzelian P.S. Selective expression of cytochrome P450 CYP3A mRNAs in embryonic and adult human liver. Pharmacogenetics (1994) 4 11-20.
80. Lacroix D., Sonnier M., Moncion A., Cheron G., Cresteil T. Expression of CYP3A in the human liver. Evidence that the shift between CYP3A7 and CYP3A4 occurs immediately after birth. Eur. J. Biochem. (1997) 247 625-634.
81. Harris R.Z., Benet L.Z., Schwartz J.B. Gender effects in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Drugs (1995) 50 222-239.
82. Vauzelle-Kervroedan F., Rey E., Pariente-Khayat A. et al. Non invasive in vivo study of the maturation of CYP IIIA in neonates and infants. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1996) 51 69-72.
83. Treluyer J.M., Rey E., Sonnier M., Cresteil T., Pons G. Evidence of cisapride metabolism immaturity in neonates. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (2000) 67 150.
84. Costalos C., Gounaris A., Varhalama E., Kokori F., Alexiou N., Katsarakis I. Effect of low-dose cisapride on gastric emptying and QTc interval in preterm infants. Acta Paediatr. (2000) 89 1446-1448.
85. Rogers A.S. The role of cytochrome P450 in developmental pharmacology. J. Adolesc. Health (1994) 15 635-640.
86. Parkinson A. Biotransformation of xenobiotics, in: Klaassen C.D. (Ed.), Toxicology - the basic science of poisons. 5th edn. McGraw-Hill. (1996), pp. 113-186.
87. Treluyer J.M., Cheron G., Sonnier M., Cresteil T. Cytochrome P-450 expression in sudden infant death syndrome. Biochem. Pharmacol. (1996) 52 497-504.
88. Treluyer J.M., Gueret G., Cheron G., Sonnier M., Cresteil T. Developmental expression of CYP2C and CYP2C-dependent activities in the human liver: in-vivo/in-vitro correlation and inducibility. Pharmacogenetics (1997) 7 441-452.
89. Lowry J.A., Jarrett R.V., Wasserman G., Pettett G., Kauffman R.E. Theophylline toxicokinetics in premature newborns. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. (2001) 155 934-939.
90. Hakkola J. Tanaka E., Pelkonen O. Developmental expression of cytochrome P450 enzymes in human liver. Pharmacol. Toxicol. (1998) 82 209-217.
91. Tateishi T., Asoh M., Yamaguchi A. et al. Developmental changes in urinary elimination of theophylline and its metabolites in pediatric patients. Pediatr. Res. (1999) 45 66-70.
92. Cazeneuve C., Pons G., Rey E. et al. Biotransformation of caffeine in human liver microsomes from foetuses, neonates, infants and adults. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1994) 37 405-412.
93. Carrier O., Pons G., Rey E. et al. Maturation of caffeine metabolic pathways in infancy. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1988) 44 145-151.
94. Pons G., Carrier O., Richard M.O. et al. Developmental changes in caffeine elimination in infancy. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1988) 11 258-264.
95. 2 breath test. Pediatr. Res. (1988) 23 632-636.
96. Leeder J.S., Adcock K., Gaedigk A., Gotschall R., Wilson J.T., Kearns G.L. Delayed maturation of cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) activity in vivo the first year of life. Pediatr. Res. (2000) 47 472A # 2788.
97. Carrièe V., Berthou F., Baird S., Belloc C., Beaune P., de Waziers I. Human cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1): from genotype to phenotype. Pharmacogenetics (1996) 6 203-211.
98. Vieira I., Sonnier M., Cresteil T. Developmental expression of CYP2E1 in the human liver - Hypermethylation control of gene expression during the neonatal period. Eur. J. Biochem. (1996) 238 476-483.
99. Strolin Benedetti M., Dostert P., Tipton K.F. Developmental aspects of the monoamine-degrading enzyme monoamine oxidase. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1992) 18 191-200.
100. Kornhuber J., Konradi C., Mack-Burkhardt F., Riederer P., Heinsen H., Beckmann H. Ontogenesis of monoamine oxidase-A and -B in the human brain frontal cortex. Brain Res. (1989) 499 81-86.
101. Riley L.A., Waguespack M.A., Denney R.M. Characterization and quantitation of monoamine oxidases A and B in mitochondria from human placenta. Mol. Pharmacol. (1989) 36 54-60.
102. Yoshimoto Y., Sakumoto T., Aono T., Kimura H., Maeda T., Tanizawa O, Histochemical studies on human placental and chorionic monoamine oxidase. Obstet. Gynecol. (1986) 67 344-348.
103. Casimiri V., Acker G., Parvez S. et al. Characterization of enzymes of catecholamine synthesis and metabolism in human fetal membranes at birth. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (1991) 164 599-603.
104. Thorpe L.W., Westlund K.N., Kochersperger L.M., Abell C.W., Denney R.M. Immunocytochemical localization of monoamine oxidases A and B in human peripheral tissues and brain. J. Histochem. Cytochem. (1987) 35 23-32.
105. Weil A., Caldwell J., Strolin Benedetti M., The metabolism and disposition of a14C-fenofibrate in human volunteers. Drug Metab. Dispos. (1990) 18 115-120.
106. Strolin Benedetti M., Pianezzola E., Fraier D., Castelli M.G., Dostert P. Stereoselectivity of idarubicin reduction in various animal species and humans. Xenobiotica (1991) 21 473-480.
107. 1 in human liver and in human erythrocytes. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1997) 52 147-153.
108. Kuffel M.J., Reid J.M., Ames M.M. Anthracyclines and their C-13 alcohol metabolites: growth inhibition and DNA damage following incubation with human tumor cells in culture. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. (1992) 30 51-57.
109. Reid J.M., Pendergrass T.W., Krailo M.D., Hammond G.D., Ames M.M. Plasma pharmacokinetics and cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of idarubicin and idarubicinolin pediatric leukemia patients. Cancer Res. (1990) 50 6525.
110. Masur E. Xenobiotic carbonyl reduction and physiological steroid oxidoreduction. Biochem. Pharmacol. (1995) 49 421-440.
111. Ecobichon D.J., Stephens D.S. Perinatal development of blood exterases. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1971) 14 41-47.
112. Morselli P.L., Franco-Morselli R., Bossi L. Clinical pharmacokinetics in newborns and infants. Clin. Pharmacokin. (1980) 5 485-527.
113. Kauffman R.E., Miceli J.N., Strebel L., Buckley J.A., Done A.K., Dajani A.S. Pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol and chloramphenicol succinate in infants and children. J. Pediatr. (1981) 98 315-320.
114. Jacobs R.F., Kearns G.L., Brown A.L., Trang J.M., Kluza R.B. Renal clearance of imipenem in children. Eur. J. Microbiol. (1984) 3 471-474.
115. Oesch F., Thoenen H., Fahrlaender H. Epoxide hydrase in human liver biopsy specimens; assay and properties. Biochem. Pharmacol. (1974) 23 1307-1317.
116. Omiecinski C.J., Aicher L., Swenson L. Developmental expression of human microsomal epoxide hydrolase. J. Pharmacol. Exper. Ther. (1994) 269 417-423.
117. Vest M.F., Salzberg R. Conjugation reactions in the newborn infant: the metabolism of para-aminobenzoic acid. Arch. Dis. Child. (1965) 40 97-105.
118. Pons G., Rey E., Carrier O. et al. Maturation of AFMU excretion in infants. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. (1989) 3 589-595.
119. Pariente-Khayat A., Rey E., Gendrel D. et al. Isoniazid acetylation metabolic ratio during maturation in children. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1997) 62 377-383.
120. 7-methylation of theophylline to caffeine in premature infants. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1981) 2 137-144.
121. Pacifici G.M., Santerini S., Giuliani L., Rane A. Thiol methyltransferase in humans: development and tissue distribution. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1991) 17 8-15.
122. Dervieux T., Médard Y., Baudouin V. et al. Thiopurine methyltransferase activity and its relationship to the occurrence of rejection episodes in paediatric renal transplant recipients treated with azathioprine. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1999) 48 793-800.
123. Douchain F. Interactions médicamenteuses. Génétique et ontogenèse. Des aides à la prescription. Abstract Pédiatrie (2001) 151 12.
124. McLeod H.L., Coulthard S., Thomas A.E. et al. Analysis of thiopurine methyltransferase variant alleles in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Br. J. Haematol. (1999) 105 696-700.
125. Ferroni M.A., Marchi G., Sansone E. et al. Variability in the rate of 6-mercaptopurine methylation in the erythrocytes, liver and kidney in an Italian population. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1996) 51 23-29.
126. Vest M.F., Rossier R. Detoxification in the newborn: the ability of the newborn infant to form conjugates with glucuronic acid, glycine, acetate and glutathione. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. (1963) 111 183-198.
127. Coughtrie M.W.H., Burchel B., Leakey J.E.A., Hume R. The inadequacy of perinatal glucuronidation: immunoblot analysis of the developmental expression of individual UDP-glucuronosyltrznsferase isoenzymes in rat and human liver microsomes. Mol. Pharmacol. (1988) 34 729-735.
128. Leakey J.E.A., Hume R., Burchell B. Development of multiple activities of UDP-glucuronyltransferase in human liver. Biochem. J. (1987) 243 859-861.
129. Gawronska-Szklarz B., Svensson J.O., Widen J., Rane A. Differential hepatic glucuronidation of (-) and (+) morphine in the rat and the human fetus, in: Advances in glucuronide conjugation (Matern S., Bock, K.W., Gerok W. (Eds.), MTP Press, Lancaster, UK. (1985), pp. 335-340.
130. Pacifici G.M., Säwe J., Kager L., Rane A. Morphine glucuronidation in human fetal and adult liver. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1982) 22 553-558.
131. Vest M. Insufficient glucuronide formation in the newborn and its relationship to the pathogenesis of icterus neonatorium. Arch. Dis. Child (1958) 33 473-476.
132. Gladtke E., Rind H. Bilirubinstoffwechsel beim Neugeborenen. Mschr. Kinderheilk. (1967) 115 231-233.
133. Weiss C.V., Blaska A.J., Weston J.K. Chloramphenicol in the newborn infant - a physiological explanation of its toxicity when given in excessive doses. N. Engl. J. Med. (1960) 262 787-792.
134. Alam S.M., Roberts R.J., Fischer L.J. Age related differences in salicylamide and acetaminophen conjugation in man. J. Pediatr. (1977) 90 130-135.
135. Stern L., Khannaa N.N., Levy G., Yaffe S.J. Effect of phenobarbital on hyperbilirubinemia and glucuronide formation in newborn infants. Am. J. Dis. Child. (1970) 120 26.
136. Choonara I.A., McKay P., Hain R., Rane A. Morphine metabolism in children. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1989) 28 599-604.
137. McRorie T.I., Lynn A.M., Nespeca M.K., Opheim K.F., Slattery J.T. The maturation of morphine clearance and metabolism. AJDC (1992) 146 972-976.
138. Vietri M., Pietrabissa A., Mosca F., Rane A., Pacifici G.M. Human adult and fœtal liver sulphotransferases: inhibition by mefanamic acid and salicylic acid. Xenobiotica (2001) 31 153-161.
139. LeBel M., Ferron L., Masson M. Pichette J., Carrier C. Benzyl aclohol metabolism and elimination in neonates. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1988) 11 347-356.
140. Pacifici G.M., Mogavero S., Giuliani L., Rane A. Conjugation of benzoic acid with glycine in the human fetal and adult liver and kidney. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. (1991) 17 52-62.
141. Needs C.J., Brooks P.M. Clinical pharmacokinetics of the salicylates. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (1985) 10 164-177.
142. Pacifici G.M., Franchi M., Colizzi C., Giuliani L., Rane A. Glutathione S-transferase in humans: development and tissue distribution. Arch. Toxicol. (1988) 61 265-269.
143. Warholm M., Guthenberg C., Mannervik B., von Bahr C. Purification of a new glutathione S-transferase (transferase μ) from human liver having high activity with benzo(a)pyrene-4,5-oxide. Biochem. Piophys. Res. Commun. 98 (1981a) 512-519.
144. Warholm M., Guthenberg C., Mannervik B., Pacifici G.M., Rane A. Glutathione S-transferases in human fetal liver. Acta. Chem. Scand. (1981) 35 225-227.
145. Pacifici G.M., Warhohn M., Guthenberg C., Mannervik B., Rane A. Organ distribution of glutathione transferase isoenzymes in the human fetus: differences between liver and extrahepatic tissues. Biochem. Pharmacol. (1986) 35 1616-1619.
146. Strolin Benedetti M. Species differences in reductive reactions in drug metabolism. Actual. Chim. Thér., 18ème série (1991) 243-244.
147. Langhendries J.P., Paquay T., Hannon M., Darimont J. Acquisition de la flore intestinale néonatale: rôle sur la morbidité et perspectives thérapeutiques. Arch. Pédiatr. (1998) 5 644-653.
148. Barnett H.L., McNamara H., Schultz S., Tompsett R. Renal clearance of sodium penicillin G, procaine penicillin G and insulin in infants and children. Pediatrics (1949) 3 418-422.
149. West J.R., Smith H.W., Chasis H. Glomerular filtration rate, effective renal blood flow, and maximal tubular excretory capacity in infancy. J. Pediatr. (1948) 32 10-18.
150. Schwartz G.J., Haycock G.B., Edelmann C.M., Spitzer A. A simple estimate of glomerular filtration rate in children derived from body length and plasma creatinine. Pediatrics (1976) 58 259-263.
151. Schwartz G.J., Brion L.P., Spitzer A. The use of plasma creatinine concentration for estimating glomerular filtration rate in infants, children and adolescents. Pediatr. Clin. N. Am. (1987) 34 571-590.
152. Aperia A., Broberger O., Elinder G., Herin P., Zetterström R. Postnatal development or renal function in pre-term and full-term infants. Acta Paediatr. Scand. (1981) 70 183-187.
153. Schwartz G.J., Haycock G.B., Chir B., Spitzer A. Plasma creatinine and urea concentration in children: normal values for age and sex. J. Pediatr. (1976) 5 828-830.
154. Lindlay L., Engle M.A., Reidenberg M.M. Maturation and renal digoxin clearance. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1981) 30 735.
155. Koren G., Hesslein P.S., MacLeod S.M. Digosin toxicity associated with amiodarone therapy in children. J. Pediatr. (1984) 104 467-470.
156. Hua M.J., Kun H.Y., Jie C.S., Yun N.Z., De W.Q., Yang Z. Urinary microalbumin and retinol-binding protein assay for verifing children's nephron development and maturation. Clin. Chim. Acta (1997) 264 127-132.
157. Somogyi A., Becker M., Gugler R. Cimetidine pharmacokinetics and dosage requirements in children. Eur. J. Pediatr. (1985) 144 72-76.
158. Hunt A., Joel S., Dick G., Goldman A. Population pharmacokinetics of oral morphine and its glucuronides in children receiving morphine as immediate-release liquid or sustained-release tablets for cancer pain. J. Pediatr. (1999) 135 47-55.
159. Chae K.M., Tharp M.D. Use and safety of antihistamines in children. Dermatol. ther. (2000) 13 374-383.
160. Simons F.E., Simons K.J., Becker A.B., Haydey R.P. Pharmacokinetics and antipruritic effects of hydroxyzine in children with atopic dermatis. J. Pediatr. (1984) 104 123-127.
161. Watson W.T.A., Simons K.J., Chen X.Y., Simons F.E.R. Cetirizine: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation in children with seasonal allergic rhinitis. J. Allergy, Clin. Immunol. (1989) 84 457-464.
162. 1-receptor antagonist cetirizine in very young children. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1993) 53 431-435.
163. Pariente Khayat A., Rey E., Dubois M.C. et al. Pharmacokinetics of cetirizine in 2- to 6-year-old children. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. ther. (1995) 33 340-344.
164. Spicak V., Dab I., Hulhoven R. et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cetirizine in infants and toddlers. Clin. Pharmacol. ther. (1997) 61 325-330.
165. Gorodischer R., Jusko W.J., Yaffe S.J. Tissue and erythrocyte distribution of digoxin in infants. Clin. Pharmacol. ther. (1976) 19 256-263.
166. Garrettson L.K., Dayton P.G. Disappearance of phenobarbital and diphenylhydantoin from serum in children. Clin. Pharmacol. ther. (1980) 11 674-679.
167. Loughnan P.M., Sitar D.S., Ogilvie R.I., Eisen A., Fox Z., Neims A.H. Pharmacokinetic analysis of the disposition of intravenous theophylline in young children. J. Pediatr. (1976) 88 874-879.
168. Grygiel J.J., Ward H., Ogborne M., Goldin A., Birkett D.J. Relationships between plasma theophylline clearance, liver volume and body weight in children and adults. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1983) 24 529-532.
169. Sälke-Treumann A., Rambeck B., May T., Boenigk H.E. Nebenwirkungen durch Carbamazepin-Epoxid bei Kindern. Epilesie-Blätter (1988) 1 39-41.
170. Rane A., Wilson J.T. Plasma level monitoring of diphenylhydantoin and carbamazepine in the pediatric patient. International Symposium on Clinical Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacology (Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, (1975)).
171. Eichelbaum M., Ekbom K., Bertilsson L., Ringberger V.A., Rane A. Plasma kinetics of carbamazepine and its epoxide metabolite in man during single and multiple dosing. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1975) 8 337-341.
172. Eichelbaum M., Bertilsson L., Rane A., Sjöqvist F. Auto-induction of carbamazepine metabolism in man. Reprinted from Anticonvulsivant drugs and enzyme induction. Study group 9 of the IRMMH published by the Associated Scientific Publishers (March 1976) 147-158.
173. Reed M.D., Stern R.C., Bertino J.S., Myers C.M., Yamashita T.S., Blumer J.L. Dosing implications of rapid elimination of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in patients with cystic fibrosis. J. Pediatr. (1984) 104 303-307.
174. Yaffe S.J., Gerbracht L.M., Mosovich L.L., Mattar M.E., Danish M., Jusko W.J. Pharmacokinetics of methicillin in patients with cystic fibrosis. J. Infect. Dis. (1977) 135 828-831.
175. Ling V. Multidrug resistance: molecular mechanisms and clinical relevance. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. (1997) 40 S3-S8.
176. Inui K.I., Masuda S., Saito H. Cellular and molecular aspects of drug transport in the kidney. Kidney Int. (2000) 58 944-958.
177. Dhooge C., De Moerloose B., Laureys G. et al. P-glycoprotein is an independent prognostic factor predicting relapse in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: results of a 6-year prospective study. Br. J. Haematol. (1999) 105 676-683.
178. Ivy S.P., Olshefski R.S., Taylor B.J., Patel K.M., Reaman G.H. Correlation of p-glycoprotein expression and function in childhood acute leukemia: a children's cancer group study. Blood (1996) 1 309-318.
179. Den Boer M.L., Pieters R., Kazemier K.M., Janka-Schaub G.E., Henze G., Veerman A.J.P. Relationship between intracellular daunorubicin concentration, expression of major vault protein/lung resistance protein and resistance to antrhracyclines in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia (1999) 13 2023-2030.
180. Kanerva J., Tiirikainen M., Mäkipernaa A. et al. Multiple drug resistance mediated by p-glycoprotein is not a major factor in a slow response to therapy in childhood all. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. (1998) 21 11-21.
181. Jeruss J., Braun S.V., Reese J.C., Guillot A. Cyclosporine-induced white and grey matter central nervous system lesions in a pediatric renal transplant patient. Pediatr. Transplantation (1998) 2 45-50.
182. Rowland M., Tozer T.N. Age and weight, in: Rowland M., Tozer T.N. (Eds.), Clinical pharmacokinetics - concepts and applications, 3rd edn, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, (1995), pp. 231-247.
183. Efthymiopoulos C., Battaglia R., Strolin Benedetti M. Animal pharmacokinetics and interspecies scaling of FCE 22101, a penem antibiotic. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1991) 27 517-526.
184. Akinyinka O.O., Sowunmi A., Honeywell R., Renwick A.G. The effect of acute falciparum malaria on the disposition of caffeine and the comparison of saliva and plasma derived pharmacokinetic parameters in adult Nigerians. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (2000) 56 159-165.
185. Garner R.C. Accelerator mass spectrometry in pharmaceutical research and development - a new ultrasensitive analytical method for isotope measurement. Curr. Drug. Metab. (2000) 1 205-213.
186. Sheiner L.B., Stanski D.R., Vozeh S., Miller R.D., Ham J. Simultaneous modelling of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics: application to d-tubocurarine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1979) 25 358-371.
187. Strolin Benedetti M., Tocchetti P., Rocchetti M. et al. Enantioselective recognition of two anticonvulsants. FCE 26743 and FCE 28073, by MAO and relationship between MAO-B inhibition and FCE 26743 concentrations in rat brain, in: Yu P.M., Tipton K.F., Boulton A.A. (Eds.), Progress in brain research - current neurochemical and pharmacological aspects of biogenic amines - their function, oxidative deamination and inhibition. vol. 106, Elsevier Science BV. (1995). pp. 123-134.