Topical pimecrolimus: A review of its use in the management of pediatric atopic dermatitis

Pediatric Drugs

Volumn 11, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 407-426

  Yang, Lily P H ^a   Curran, Monique P ^a  

^a ADIS INTERNATIONAL LIMITED   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTEROID; DRUG VEHICLE; HYDROCORTISONE; PIMECROLIMUS; TACROLIMUS;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; APPLICATION SITE BURNING; ATOPIC DERMATITIS; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BRONCHITIS; COUGHING; DIARRHEA; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG COST; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG FEVER; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EAR INFECTION; HEADACHE; HUMAN; INFLUENZA; LYMPHOMA CELL; NONHUMAN; OTITIS MEDIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; RHINOPHARYNGITIS; SIDE EFFECT; SKIN CANCER; SKIN INFECTION; TOOTH ERUPTION; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; URINARY TRACT INFECTION; VIRUS INFECTION;

ADMINISTRATION, TOPICAL; ANIMALS; CHILD; DERMATITIS, ATOPIC; DRUG TOXICITY; HUMANS; QUALITY OF LIFE; TACROLIMUS;

EID: 70449399185     PISSN: 11745878     EISSN: 11792019     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/10481960-000000000-00000     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Levy ML. Atopic dermatitis: understanding the disease and its management. Curr Med Res Opin 2007 Dec; 23 (12): 3091-3103
2. Kiken DA, Silverberg NB. Atopic dermatitis in children, part 1: epidemiology, clinical features, and complications. Cutis 2006 Oct; 78 (4): 241-247
3. Akdis CA, Akdis M, Bieber T, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of atopic dermatitis in children and adults: European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology/American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology/PRACTALL consensus report. Allergy 2006; 61 (8): 969-987 (Pubitemid 44024897)
4. Elias PM, HatanoY,Williams ML. Basis for the barrier abnormality in atopic dermatitis: outside-inside-outside pathogenic mechanisms. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008 Jun; 121 (6): 1337-1343
5. LeungDYM,BieberT.Atopic dermatitis.Lancet 2003 Jan 11; 361 (9352): 151-160 (Pubitemid 36092023)
6. Carroll CL, BalkrishnanR, Feldman SR, et al. The burden of atopic dermatitis: impact on the patient, family, and society. Pediatr Dermatol 2005; 22 (3): 192-199
7. Kemp AS. Cost of illness of atopic dermatitis in children: a societal perspective. Pharmacoeconomics 2003; 21 (2): 105-113
8. Su JC, Kemp AS, Varigos GA, et al. Atopic eczema: its impact on the family and financial cost. Arch Dis Child 1997 Feb; 76 (2): 159-162
9. Emerson RM, Williams HC, Allen BR. What is the cost of atopic dermatitis in preschool children? Br J Dermatol 2001 Mar; 144 (3): 514-522
10. Kiken DA, Silverberg NB. Atopic dermatitis in children, part 2: treatment options. Cutis 2006 Dec; 78 (6): 401-406
11. National Institute forHealth and Clinical Excellence.Atopic eczema in children: management of atopic eczema in children from birth up to the age of 12 years (NICE clinical guideline 57) [online]. Available from URL: http://www.nice. org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG057NICEguideline.pdf [Accessed 2009 Oct 14]
12. Callen J, Chamlin S, Eichenfield LF, et al. A systematic review of the safety of topical therapies for atopic dermatitis. Br JDermatol 2007 Feb; 156 (2): 203-221
13. Hengge UR, Ruzicka T, Schwartz RA, et al. Adverse effects of topical glucocorticosteroids. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006 Jan; 54 (1): 1-15
14. Draelos ZD. Use of topical corticosteroids and topical calcineurin inhibitors for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in thin and sensitive skin areas. Curr Med Res Opin 2008 Apr; 24 (4): 985-994
15. Berger TG, Duvic M, Van Voorhees AS, et al. The use of topical calcineurin inhibitors in dermatology: safety concerns. Report of the American Academy of DermatologyAssociation Task Force [published erratumappears in JAmAcad Dermatol 2006Aug; 55 (2): 271].
16. JAmAcad Dermatol 2006 May; 54 (5): 818-823
17. European Medicines Agency. Protopic (tacrolimus) 0.03%, 0.1% ointment: summary of product characteristics [online]. Available from URL: http:// www.emea.europa.eu/humandocs/PDFs/EPAR/protopic/emea-combinedh374en. pdf [Accessed 2009 Oct 14]
18. Astellas Pharma US Inc. Protopic- (tacrolimus) 0.03%, 0.1% ointment: US prescribing information [online]. Available from URL: http://www.astellas. us/docs/protopic.pdf [Accessed 2009 Oct 14]
19. European Medicines Agency. Scientific conclusions (annex II) and summary of product characteristics (annex III) [online]. Available from URL: http:// www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/referral/elidel/Elidel-H-A-31-663-PI-en. pdf [Accessed 2009 Oct 6]
20. Novartis. Elidel- (pimecrolimus) 1% cream: US prescribing information [online]. Available from URL: http://www.pharma.us.novartis.com/product/ pi/pdf/elidel.pdf [Accessed 2009 Oct 14]
21. Stuetz A, Baumann K, Grassberger M, et al. Discovery of topical calcineurin inhibitors and pharmacological profile of pimecrolimus. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2006; 141 (3): 199-212
22. Wellington K, Noble S. Pimecrolimus: a review of its use in atopic dermatitis. Am J Clin Dermatol 2004; 5 (6): 479-495 (Pubitemid 40178773)
23. Ring J, Barker J, Behrendt H, et al. Review of the potential photo-cocarcinogenicity of topical calcineurin inhibitors: position statement of the European Dermatology Forum. J Eur AcadDermatol Venereol 2005Nov; 19 (6): 663-671
24. Grassberger M, Baumruker T, Enz A, et al. A novel anti-inflammatory drug, SDZASM981, for the treatment of skin diseases: in vitro pharmacology. Br J Dermatol 1999 Aug; 141 (2): 264-273
25. Kalthoff FS, Winiski A, Fichtinger P, et al. Differential inhibition of primary versus preactivated T cells by pimecrolimus but not by tacrolimus in vitro. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2007; 142 (3): 255-264
26. Winiski A, Wang S, Schwendinger B, et al. Inhibition of T-cell activation in vitro in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells by pimecrolimus and glucocorticosteroids and combinations thereof. Exp Dermatol 2007 Aug; 16 (8): 699-704
27. Hoetzenecker W, Ecker R, Kopp T, et al. Pimecrolimus leads to an apoptosisinduced depletion of T cells but not Langerhans cells in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005 Jun; 115 (6): 1276-1283
28. Kalthoff FS, Chung J, Stuetz A. Pimecrolimus inhibits up-regulation of OX40 and synthesis of inflammatory cytokines upon secondary T cell activation by allogeneic dendritic cells [published erratum appears in Clin Exp Immunol 2002 Dec; 130 (3): 562-3]. Clin Exp Immunol 2002 Oct; 130 (1): 85-92
29. SimonD, Vassina E, Yousefi S, et al. Inflammatory cell numbers and cytokine expression in atopic dermatitis after topical pimecrolimus treatment. Allergy 2005 Jul; 60 (7): 944-951
30. Simon D, Lindberg RLP, Kozlowski E, et al. Epidermal caspase-3 cleavage associated with interferon-g-expressing lymphocytes in acute atopic dermatitis lesions. Exp Dermatol 2006 Jun; 15 (6): 441-446
31. Zuberbier T, Chong S-U, Grunow K, et al. The ascomycin macrolactam pimecrolimus (Elidel, SDZ ASM 981) is a potent inhibitor of mediator release from human dermal mast cells and peripheral blood basophils. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001 Aug; 108 (2): 275-280
32. Plager DA, Henke SA, Matsuwaki Y, et al. Pimecrolimus reduces eosinophil activation associated with calcium mobilization. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2009 Jan 6; 149 (2): 119-126
33. Büchau AS, Schauber J, Hultsch T, et al. Pimecrolimus enhances TLR2/6- induced expression of antimicrobial peptides in keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2008 Nov; 128 (11): 2646-2654
34. Kalthoff FS, Chung J, Musser P, et al. Pimecrolimus does not affect the differentiation, maturation and function of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells, in contrast to corticosteroids. Clin Exp Immunol 2003 Sep; 133 (3): 350-359
35. Krummen MBW, Varga G, Steinert M, et al. Effect of pimecrolimus vs. corticosteroids on murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cell differentiation, maturation and function. Exp Dermatol 2006 Jan; 15 (1): 43-50
36. Hoetzenecker W, Meindl S, Stuetz A, et al. Both pimecrolimus and corticosteroids deplete plasmacytoid dendritic cells in patients with atopic dermatitis [letter]. J Invest Dermatol 2006 Sep; 126 (9): 2141-2144
37. Hoetzenecker W, Meingassner JG, Ecker R, et al. Corticosteroids but not pimecrolimus affect viability, maturation and immune function of murine epidermal Langerhans cells. J Invest Dermatol 2004 Mar; 122 (3): 673-684
38. Meingassner JG,KowalskyE, Schwendinger H, et al.Pimecrolimus does not affect Langerhans cells in murine epidermis. Br J Dermatol 2003 Oct; 149 (4): 853-857
39. Meindl S, Vaculik C, Meingassner JG, et al. Differential effects of corticosteroids and pimecrolimus on the developing skin immune system in humans and mice. J Invest Dermatol 2009 Sep; 129 (9): 2184-2192
40. Meingassner JG, Grassberger M, Fahrngruber H, et al. A novel antiinflammatory drug, SDZASM981, for the topical and oral treatment of skin diseases: in vivo pharmacology. Br J Dermatol 1997 Oct; 137 (4): 568-576
41. Queille-Roussel C, Paul C, Duteil L, et al. The new topical ascomycin derivative SDZ ASM 981 does not induce skin atrophy when applied to normal skin for 4 weeks: a randomized, double-blind controlled study. Br J Dermatol 2001 Mar; 144 (3): 507-513
42. Murrell DF, Calvieri S, Ortonne JP, et al. A randomized controlled trial of pimecrolimus cream 1%in adolescents and adults with head and neck atopic dermatitis and intolerant of, or dependent on, topical corticosteroids. Br J Dermatol 2007 Nov; 157 (5): 954-959
43. Aschoff R, Schwanebeck U, Bräutigam M, et al. Skin physiological parameters confirm the therapeutic efficacy of pimecrolimus cream 1%in patients with mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis. Exp Dermatol 2009 Jan; 18 (1): 24-29
44. Jensen J-M, Pfeiffer S, Witt M, et al. Different effects of pimecrolimus and betamethasone on the skin barrier in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009 May; 123 (5): 1124-1133
45. Wahn U, Bos JD, Goodfield M, et al. Efficacy and safety of pimecrolimus cream in the long-term management of atopic dermatitis in children. Flare Reduction in Eczema with Elidel (Children) Multicenter Investigator Study Group. Pediatrics 2002 Jul; 110 (1 Pt 1): e2-9
46. Kapp A, Papp K, Bingham A, et al. Long-term management of atopic dermatitis in infants with topical pimecrolimus, a nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drug. Flare Reduction in Eczema with Elidel (infants) Multicenter Investigator Study Group. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002 Aug; 110 (2): 277-284
47. Papp KA, Breuer K, Meurer M, et al. Long-term treatment of atopic dermatitis with pimecrolimus cream 1% in infants does not interfere with the development of protective antibodies after vaccination. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005 Feb; 52 (2): 247-253
48. Eichenfield LF, Thaci D, de Prost Y, et al. Clinical management of atopic eczema with pimecrolimus cream 1% (Elidel-) in paediatric patients. Dermatology 2007; 215 Suppl. 1: 3-17
49. Opelz G, Dohler B. Lymphomas after solid organ transplantation: a collaborative transplant study report. Am J Transplant 2004 Feb; 4 (2): 222-230
50. Lerche CM, Philipsen PA, Poulsen T, et al. Topical pimecrolimus and tacrolimus do not accelerate photocarcinogenesis in hairless mice after UVA or simulated solar radiation. Exp Dermatol 2009 Mar; 18 (3): 246-251
51. Doelker L, Tran C, Gkomouzas A, et al. Production and clearance of cyclobutane dipyrimidine dimers in UV-irradiated skin pretreated with 1% pimecrolimus or 0.1% triamcinolone acetonide creams in normal and atopic patients. Exp Dermatol 2006 May; 15 (5): 342-346
52. Allen BR, Lakhanpaul M, Morris A, et al. Systemic exposure, tolerability, and efficacy of pimecrolimus cream 1% in atopic dermatitis patients. Arch Dis Child 2003 Nov; 88 (11): 969-973
53. Eichenfield LF, Ho V, Matsunaga J, et al. Blood concentrations, tolerability and efficacy of pimecrolimus cream 1%in Japanese infants and children with atopic dermatitis. J Dermatol 2007 Apr; 34 (4): 231-236
54. Harper J, Green A, ScottG, et al. First experience of topical SDZ ASM 981 in children with atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 2001 Apr; 144 (4): 781-787
55. Lakhanpaul M, Davies T, Allen BR, et al. Low systemic exposure in infants with atopic dermatitis in a 1-year pharmacokinetic study with pimecrolimus cream 1%. Exp Dermatol 2006 Feb; 15 (2): 138-141
56. Staab D, Pariser D, Gottlieb AB, et al. Low systemic absorption and good tolerability of pimecrolimus, administered as 1% cream (Elidel-) in infants with atopic dermatitis: a multicenter, 3-week, open-label study. Pediatr Dermatol 2005 Sep-Oct; 22 (5): 465-471
57. Gschwind H-P, Waldmeier F, Zollinger M, et al. Pimecrolimus: skin disposition after topical administration in minipigs in vivo and in human skin in vitro. Eur J Pharm Sci 2008 Jan; 33 (1): 9-19
58. Billich A, Aschauer H, Aszó di A, et al. Percutaneous absorption of drugs used in atopic eczema: pimecrolimus permeates less through skin than corticosteroids and tacrolimus. Int J Pharm 2004 Jan 9; 269 (1): 29-35
59. Meingassner JG, Aschauer H, Stuetz A, et al. Pimecrolimus permeates less than tacrolimus through normal, inflamed, or corticosteroid-pretreated skin. Exp Dermatol 2005 Oct; 14 (10): 752-757
60. Kaufmann R, Thaci D, Bieber T, et al. Treatment with pimecrolimus cream 1%, with overnight occlusion, of moderate to severe atopic dermatitis for 8.5 days did not measurably increase systemic exposure [abstract no. P1300]. J Am Acad Dermatol 2009 Mar; 60 (3 Suppl. 1): AB67
61. Weiss HM, Fresneau M, Moenius T, et al. Binding of pimecrolimus and tacrolimus to skin and plasma proteins: implications for systemic exposure after topical application. Drug Metab Dispos 2008 Sep; 36 (9): 1812-1818
62. Zollinger M, Waldmeier F, Hartmann S, et al. Pimecrolimus: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion in healthy volunteers after a single oral dose and supplementary investigation in vitro.Drug MetabDispos 2006 May 1; 34 (5): 765-774
63. Eichenfield LF, Lucky AW, Boguniewicz M, et al. Safety and efficacy of pimecrolimus (ASM 981) cream 1% in the treatment of mild and moderate atopic dermatitis in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002 Apr; 46 (4): 495-504
64. Ho VC, Gupta A, Kaufmann R, et al. Safety and efficacy of nonsteroid pimecrolimus cream 1% in the treatment of atopic dermatitis in infants. J Pediatr 2003; 142 (2): 155-162
65. Kaufmann R, Fölster-Holst R, Höger P, et al. Onset of action of pimecrolimus cream 1% in the treatment of atopic eczema in infants. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004 Nov; 114 (5): 1183-1188
66. Hoeger PH, LeeK-H, Jautova J, et al. The treatment of facial atopic dermatitis in children who are intolerant of, or dependent on, topical corticosteroids: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. Br JDermatol 2009 Feb; 160 (2): 415-422
67. Kempers S, Boguniewicz M, Carter E, et al. A randomized investigatorblinded study comparing pimecrolimus cream 1% with tacrolimus ointment 0.03%in the treatment of pediatric patients with moderate atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004 Oct; 51 (4): 515-525
68. Siegfried E,KormanN,Molina C, et al. Safety and efficacy of early intervention with pimecrolimus cream1%combined with corticosteroids for major flares in infants and children with atopic dermatitis [published erratum appears in J Dermatolog Treat 2006; 17 (4): 256]. J Dermatolog Treat 2006; 17 (3): 143-150
69. Sigurgeirsson B, Ho V, Ferrá ndiz C, et al. Effectiveness and safety of a prevention-of-flare-progression strategy with pimecrolimus cream 1% in the management of paediatric atopic dermatitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2008 Nov; 22 (11): 1290-1301
70. Zuberbier T, Heinzerling L, Bieber T, et al. Steroid-sparing effect of pimecrolimus cream 1% in children with severe atopic dermatitis. Dermatology 2007; 215 (4): 325-330
71. Lübbe J, Friedlander SF, Cribier B, et al. Safety, efficacy, and dosage of 1% pimecrolimus cream for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in daily practice. NOBEL (New Online Based ELidel) Study Group. Am J Clin Dermatol 2006; 7 (2): 121-131
72. Ring J, Abraham A, de Cuyper C, et al. Control of atopic eczema with pimecrolimus cream 1% under daily practice conditions: results of a >2000 patient study. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2008 Feb; 22 (2): 195-203
73. Breuer K, Braeutigam M, Kapp A, et al. Influence of pimecrolimus cream 1% on different morphological signs of eczema in infants with atopic dermatitis. Dermatology 2004; 209 (4): 314-320
74. Barbier N, Paul C, Luger T, et al. Validation of the Eczema Area and Severity Index for atopic dermatitis in a cohort of 1550 patients from the pimecrolimus cream 1% randomized controlled clinical trials programme. Br J Dermatol 2004 Jan; 150 (1): 96-102
75. Langley RGB, Eichenfield LF, Lucky AW, et al. Sustained efficacy and safety of pimecrolimus cream 1% when used long-term (up to 26 weeks) to treat children with atopic dermatitis. Pediatr Dermatol 2008 May-Jun; 25 (3): 301-307
76. Zuberbier T, Bräutigam M. Long-term management of facial atopic eczema with pimecrolimus cream 1% in paediatric patients with mild to moderate disease. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2008 Jun; 22 (6): 718-721
77. Papp KA, Werfel T, Fölster-Holst R, et al. Long-term control of atopic dermatitis with pimecrolimus cream 1%in infants and young children: a twoyear study. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005 Feb; 52 (2): 240-246
78. McKenna SP, Whalley D, de Prost Y, et al. Treatment of paediatric atopic dermatitis with pimecrolimus (Elidel-, SDZ ASM 981): impact on quality of life and health-related quality of life. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2006 Mar; 20 (3): 248-254
79. De Backer M, Morren M-A, Boonen H, et al. Belgian observational drug utilization study of pimecrolimus cream 1%in routine daily practice in atopic dermatitis. Dermatology 2008 Jun 5; 217 (2): 156-163
80. Sunderkötter C, Weiss JM, Bextermöller R, et al. Post-marketing surveillance on treatment of 5,665 patients with atopic dermatitis using the calcineurin inhibitor pimecrolimus: positive effects on major symptoms of atopic dermatitis and on quality of life. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2006 Apr; 4 (4): 301-306
81. Staab D, Kaufmann R, Bräutigam M, et al. Treatment of infants with atopic eczema with pimecrolimus cream 1% improves parents' quality of life: a multicenter, randomized trial. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2005 Sep; 16 (6): 527-533
82. Whalley D, Huels J, McKenna SP, et al. The benefit of pimecrolimus (Elidel, SDZ ASM 981) on parents' quality of life in the treatment of pediatric atopic dermatitis. Pediatrics 2002 Dec; 110 (6): 1133-1136
83. Lewis-Jones MS, Finlay AY. The Children's Dermatology Life Quality Index (CDLQI): initial validation and practical use. Br J Dermatol 1995 Jun; 132 (6): 942-949
84. Whalley D, McKenna SP, Dewar AJ, et al. A new instrument for assessing quality of life in atopic dermatitis: international development of the Quality of Life Index for Atopic Dermatitis (QoLIAD). Br J Dermatol 2004 Feb; 150 (2): 274-283
85. McKenna SP, Doward LC, Niero M, et al. Development of needs-based quality of life instruments. Value Health 2004; 7 Suppl. 1: S17-21
86. Coyle D, Barbeau M. Cost effectiveness of Elidel in the management of patients with atopic dermatitis in Canada. J Cutan Med Surg 2004 Nov-Dec; 8 (6): 405-410
87. Ellis CN, Kahler KH, Grueger J, et al. Cost effectiveness of management of mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis with 1% pimecrolimus cream in children and adolescents 2-17 years of age. Am J Clin Dermatol 2006; 7 (2): 133-139
88. GarsideR, Stein K, CastelnuovoE, et al. The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of pimecrolimus and tacrolimus for atopic eczema: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess 2005 Jul; 9 (29): iii, xi-xiii,1-230
89. Pitt M, Garside R, Stein K. A cost-utility analysis of pimecrolimus vs. topical corticosteroids and emollients for the treatment ofmild andmoderate atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 2006 Jun; 154 (6): 1137-1146
90. Abramovits W, Boguniewicz M, Prendergast MM, et al. Comparisons of efficacy and cost-effectiveness of topical immunomodulators in the management of atopic dermatitis. J Med Econ 2003; 6 (1-14): 1-14
91. Jönsson B. Changing health environment: the challenge to demonstrate cost-effectiveness of new compounds. Pharmacoeconomics 2004; 22 Suppl. 4: 5-10
92. Chang J, Sung J. Health plan budget impact analysis for pimecrolimus. J Manag Care Pharm 2005 Jan-Feb; 11 (1): 66-73
93. Delea TE, Gokhale M, Makin C, et al. Administrative claims analysis of utilization and costs of care in health plan members with atopic dermatitis who had prior use of a topical corticosteroid and who initiate therapy with pimecrolimus or tacrolimus. J Manag Care Pharm 2007 May; 13 (4): 349-359
94. Paul C, Cork M, Rossi AB, et al. Safety and tolerability of 1% pimecrolimus cream among infants: experience with 1133 patients treated for up to 2 years. Pediatrics 2006 Jan; 117 (1): e118-28
95. Langley RGB, Luger TA, Cork MJ, et al. An update on the safety and tolerability of pimecrolimus cream 1%: evidence from clinical trials and postmarketing surveillance. Dermatology 2007; 215 Suppl. 1: 27-44
96. Hultsch T, Kapp A, Spergel J. Immunomodulation and safety of topical calcineurin inhibitors for the treatment of atopic dermatitis [publish erratum appears in Dermatology 2005; 211 (3): 292]. Dermatology 2005; 211 (2): 174-187 (Pubitemid 41160263)
97. Arellano FM, Wentworth CE, Arana A, et al. Risk of lymphoma following exposure to calcineurin inhibitors and topical steroids in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2007 Apr; 127 (4): 808-816
98. Schneeweiss S, Doherty M, Zhu S, et al. Topical treatments with pimecrolimus, tacrolimus and medium- to high-potency corticosteroids, and risk of lymphoma. Dermatology 2009; 219 (1): 7-21
99. Arellano FM, Arana A, Wentworth CE, et al. Lymphoma among patients with atopic dermatitis and/or treated with topical immunosuppressants in the United Kingdom. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009 May; 123 (5): 1111-1116
100. Margolis DJ, Hoffstad O, Bilker W. Lack of association between exposure to topical calcineurin inhibitors and skin cancer in adults. Dermatology 2007; 214 (4): 289-295
101. Fonacier L, Spergel J, Charlesworth EN, et al. Report of the Topical Calcineurin Inhibitor Task Force of the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology and the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005 Jun; 115 (6): 1249-1253
102. Hultsch T. Elidel- (pimecrolimus) cream 1%: safety update Feb, 2005 [online]. Available from URL: http://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/ac/05/ slides/2005-4089s2-02-02-Novartis%20Core%20Safety%20(CS).pdf [Accessed 2009 Oct 14]
103. Ring J, Möhrenschlager M, Henkel V. The US FDA 'black box' warning for topical calcineurin inhibitors: an ongoing controversy. Drug Saf 2008; 31 (3): 185-198
104. Orlow SJ. Topical calcineurin inhibitors in pediatric atopic dermatitis: a critical analysis of current issues. Pediatric Drugs 2007; 9 (5): 289-299
105. National Prescribing Service Ltd. Pimecrolimus cream (Elidel) for facial atopic dermatitis: Australian prescribing information [online]. Available from URL: http://www.nps.org.au/health-professionals/publications/nps- radar/current/december-2006/pimecrolimus [Accessed 2009 Oct 14]
106. Medsafe. Elidel- (pimecrolimus 1% cream): information for health professionals [online]. Available from URL: http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/ datasheet/e/elidelcr.htm [Accessed 2009 Oct 14].
107. Charman CR, Morris AD, Williams HC. Topical corticosteroid phobia in patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 2000 May; 142 (5): 931-936
108. Hon K-LE, Kam W-YC, Leung T-F, et al. Steroid fears in children with eczema. Acta Paediatr 2006 Nov; 95 (11): 1451-1455
109. El-Batawy MMY, Bosseila MA-W, Mashaly HM, et al. Topical calcineurin inhibitors in atopic dermatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Dermatol Sci 2009 May; 54 (2): 76-87
110. Ashcroft DM, Chen L-C, Garside R, et al. Topical pimecrolimus for eczema. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; (4): CD005500
111. Yarosh DB, Pena AV, Nay SL, et al. Calcineurin inhibitors decrease DNA repair and apoptosis in human keratinocytes following ultraviolet B irradiation. J Invest Dermatol 2005 Nov; 125 (5): 1020-1025