Evolution of the Madrean-Tethyan disjunctions and the North and South American amphitropical disjunctions in plants

Journal of Systematics and Evolution

Volumn 47, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 331-348

  Wen, Jun ^a   Ickert Bond, Stefanie M ^b  

^a SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA MUSEUM   (United States)

Author keywords

Amphitropical disjunctions; Biogeography; Madrean Tethyan disjunctions; Mediterranean disjuncts; North South American disjunctions

Indexed keywords

EID: 70350311046     PISSN: 16744918     EISSN: 17596831     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1759-6831.2009.00054.x     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. AckerlyDD. 2003. Community assembly, niche conservatism and adaptive evolution in changing environments. International Journal of Plant Sciences 164: S165-S184.
2. Ackerly DD. 2009. Evolution, origin and age of lineages in the Californian and Mediterranean floras. Journal of Biogeography 36: 1221-1233
3. Anderberg AA. 1994. Phylogeny of the Empetraceae, with special emphasis on character evolution in the genus Empetrum. Systematic Botany 19: 35-46
4. Axelrod DI. 1958. Evolution of the Madro-Tertiary Geoflora. Botanical Review 24: 433-509
5. Axelrod DI. 1973. History of the Mediterranean ecosystem in California. In: DiCastri F, Mooney HA eds. Mediterranean type ecosystems: origin and structure. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 225-277
6. Axelrod DI. 1975. Evolution and biogeography of Madrean-Tethyan sclerophyll vegetation. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 62: 280-334
7. Barbour MG. 1969. Age and space distribution of the desert shrub Larrea divaricata. Ecology 50: 679-685
8. Beier B-A, Nylander JAA, Chase MW, Thulin M. 2004. Phylogenetic relationships and biogeography of the desert plant genus Fagonia (Zygophyllaceae), inferred by parsimony and Bayesian model averaging. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 33: 91-108
9. Bell CD, Donoghue MJ. 2005. Phylogeny and biogeography of Valerianaceae (Dipsacales) with special reference to the South American valerians. Organisms, Diversity & Evolution 5: 147-159
10. Bell CD, Patterson RW. 2000. Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of Linanthus (Polemoniaceae). American Journal of Botany 87: 1857-1870
11. Bessega C, Vilardi JC, Saidman BO. 2006. Genetic relationships among American species of the genus Prosopis (Mimosoideae, Leguminosae) inferred from ITS sequences: evidence for long-distance dispersal. Journal of Biogeography 33: 1905-1915
12. Bleeker W, Weber-Sparenberg C, Hurka H. 2002. Chloroplast DNAvariation and biogeography in the genus Rorippa Scop. (Brassicaceae). Plant Biology 4: 104-111
13. Bray WL. 1898. On the relation of the flora of lower Sonoran zone in North America to the flora of the arid zones of Chili and Argentine. Botanical Gazette 26: 121-147
14. Bray WL. 1900. The relationships of the North American flora to that of South America. Science 12: 709-716
15. Caveney S, Charlet DA, Freitag H, Maier-Stolte M, Starratt AN. 2001. New observations on the secondary chemistry of world Ephedra (Ephedraceae). American Journal of Botany 88: 1199-1208
16. Chambers K. 1963. Amphitropical species pairs in Microseris and Agoseris (Compositae: Cichorieae). The Quarterly Review of Biology 38: 124-140
17. Coleman M, Liston A, Kadereit JW, Abbott RJ. 2003. Repeat intercontinental dispersal and Pleistocene speciation in disjunctMediterranean and desert Senecio (Asteraceae). American Journal of Botany 90: 1446-1454
18. Constance L. 1963. Amphitropical relationships in the herbaceous flora of the pacific coast of North and South America: a symposium. The Quarterly Review of Biology 38: 109-116.
19. Cook LG, Crisp MD. 2005. Directional asymmetry of longdistance dispersal and colonisation could mislead reconstructions of biogeography. Journal of Biogeography 32: 741-754
20. Cortes MC, Hunziker JH. 1997. Isozymes in Larrea divaricata and Larrea tridentata (Zygophyllaceae): a study of two amphitropical vicariants and autopolyploidy. Genetica 101: 115-124
21. Darlington PJ. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
22. Davis CC, Fritsch PW, Li J, Donoghue MJ. 2002. Phylogeny and biogeography of Cercis (Fabaceae): evidence from nuclear ribosomal ITS and chloroplast ndhF sequence data. Systematic Botany 27: 289-302
23. Donoghue MJ, Smith SA. 2004. Patterns in the assembly of temperate forests around the Northern Hemisphere. Philosophical Transactions from the Royal Society London, Series B 359: 1633-1644
24. Donoghue MJ, Bell CD, Li J. 2001. Phylogenetic patterns in northern hemisphere plant geography. International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: S41-S52.
25. Drummond AJ, Rambaut A. 2007. BEAST: Bayesian evolutionary analysis by sampling trees. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7: 214.
26. Drummond AJ, Ho SWY, Phillips MJ, Rambaut A. 2006. Relaxed phylogenetics and dating with confidence. PLoS Biology 4: 699-710
27. DuReitz GE. 1940. Problems of bipolar plant distribution. Acta Phytogeographica Suecica 13: 215-282
28. Enghoff H. 1995. Historical biogeography of the Holarctic: area relationships, ancestral areas, and dispersal of non-marine animals. Cladistics 11: 223-263
29. Engler A. 1879. Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt, insbesondere der Florengebiete seit der Tertïarperiode, 1. Die extratropischen Gebiete der nördlichen Hemisphäre. Leipzig: W. Engelmann.
30. Engler A. 1882. Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt, insbesondere der Florengebiete seit der Tertïarperiode. Leipzig: W. Engelmann.
31. Feng CM, Manchester SR, Xiang QY. 2009. Phylogeny and biogeography of Alangiaceae (Cornales) inferred from DNA sequences, morphology, and fossils. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 51: 201-214
32. Feng Y, Oh S-H, Manos PS. 2005. Phylogeny and historical biogeography of the genus Platanus as inferred from nuclear and chloroplast DNA. Systematic Botany 30: 786-799
33. Fritsch PW. 1996. Isozyme analysis of intercontinental disjuncts within Styrax (Styracaceae): implications for the Madrean-Tethyan hypothesis. American Journal of Botany 83: 342-355
34. Fritsch PW. 2001a. Phylogeny and biogeography of the flowering plant genus Styrax (Styracaceae) based on chloroplast DNA restriction sites and DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 19: 387-408
35. Fritsch PW. 2001b. Phylogeny and biogeography of the Styracaceae. International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: S95-S116.
36. Fukuda T, Yokoyama J, Ohashi H. 2001. Phylogeny and biogeography of the genus Lycium (Solanaceae): inferences from chloroplast DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 19: 246-258
37. Givnish TJ, Renner SS. 2004. Tropical intercontinental disjunctions: Gondwana breakup, immigration from the boreotropics, and transoceanic dispersal. International Journal of Plant Sciences 165: S1-S6.
38. Gray A. 1846. Analogy between the flora of Japan and that of the United States. American Journal of Science and Arts, series 2, 2: 135-136
39. Gray A, Hooker JD. 1880. The vegetation of the RockyMountain region and a comparisonwith that of other parts of theworld. United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories Bulletin 6: 1-77
40. Guzmán B, Vargas P. 2009. Historical biogeography and character evolution of Cistaceae (Malvales) based on analysis of plastid rbcL and trnL-trnF sequences. Organisms, Diversity & Evolution 9: 83-99
41. Harris AJ, Xiang QY, Thomas DT. 2009. Phylogeny, origin, and biogeographic history of Aesculus L. (Sapindales): an update from combined analysis of DNA sequences, morphology, and fossils. Taxon 58: 108-126
42. Hershkovitz M, Zimmer EA. 2000. Ribosomal DNA evidence for phylogeny and dispersal of Western North American Portulacaceae. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 15: 419-439
43. Hilemann LC, Vasey MC, Parker VT. 2001. Phylogeny and biogeography of the Arbutoideae (Ericaceae): implications for the Madrean-Tethyan hypothesis. Systematic Botany 26: 131-143
44. Hohmann S, Kadereit JW, Kadereit G. 2006. Understanding Mediterranean-Californian disjunctions: molecular evidence from Chenopodiaceae-Betoideae. Taxon 55: 67-78
45. Holmes WC, Yip KL, Rushing AE. 2008. Taxonomy of Koeberlinia (Koeberliniaceae). Brittonia 60: 171-184
46. Hooker JD. 1853. Botany of the Antarctic voyage of H. M. Discovery ships "Erebus" and "Terror" in the years 1831-43 In: Hooker JD ed. Flora Novae-Zelandiae, part 1, introductory essay. London: Reeve.
47. Hughes C, Eastwood R. 2006. Island radiation on a continental scale: exceptional rates of plant diversification after uplift of the Andes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103: 10334-10339.
48. Hunter KL, Betancoourt JL, Riddle BR, Van Devender TR, Cole KL, Spaulding WG. 2001. Ploidy race distributions since the Last Glacial Maximum in the North American desert shrub, Larrea tridentata. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 521-533
49. Hunziker JH, Palacios PA, Poggio L, Naranjo CA, Yang TW. 1977. Geographic distribution, morphology, hybridization, cytogenetics, and evolution of Larrea. In: Mabry TJ, Hunziker JH, Difeo JDR eds. Creosote bush: biology and chemistry of Larrea in the New World deserts. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchison & Ross Inc. 10-47
50. Ickert-Bond SM, Wen J. 2006. Phylogeny and biogeography of Altingiaceae: evidence from combined analysis of five noncoding chloroplast regions. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39: 512-528
51. Ickert-Bond SM, Rydin C, Renner SS. 2009. A fossil-calibrated relaxed clock for Ephedra indicates an Oligocene age for the divergence of Asian and New World clades and Miocene dispersal into South America. Journal of Systematics and Evolution 47: 444-456
52. Levin RA, Miller JS. 2005. Relationships within tribe Lycieae (Solanaceae): paraphyly of Lycium and multiple origins of gender dimorphism. American Journal of Botany 92: 2044-2053
53. Li J, Xiang Q-P. 2005. Phylogeny and biogeography of Thuja L. (Cupressaceae), an eastern Asian and North American disjunct genus. Journal of Integrative PlantBiology 47: 651-659
54. Li J, Davis CC, Del Tredici P, Donoghue MJ. 2001. Phylogeny and biogeography of Taxus (Taxaceae) inferred from sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Harvard Papers in Botany 6: 267-274
55. Li J, Alexander III J, Ward T, Del Tredici P, Nicholson R. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships of Empetraceae inferred from sequences of chloroplast gene matK and nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS region. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 25: 306-315
56. Lia VV, Confalonieri VA, Comas CI, Hunziker JH. 2001. Molecular phylogeny of Larrea and it allies (Zygophyllaceae): reticulate evolution and the probable time of Creosote bush arrival toNorth America. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 21: 309-320
57. Liston A. 1997. Biogeographic relationships between the Mediterranean and North American floras: insights from molecular data. Lagascalia 19: 323-330
58. Liston A, Kadereit JW. 1995. Chloroplast DNA evidence for introgression and long-distance dispersal in the desert annual Senecio flavus (Asteraceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 197: 33-41
59. Liston A, Rieseberg LH, Elias TS. 1989. Genetic similarity is high between intercontinental disjunct species of Senecio (Asteracae). American Journal of Botany 76: 383-388
60. Liston A, Rieseberg LH, Hanson MA. 1992. Geographic partinioning of chloroplast DNA variation in the genus Datisca (Datiscaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 181: 121-132
61. Liston A, Robinson WA, Pinero D, Alvarez-Buylla ER. 1999. Phylogenetics of Pinus (Pinaceae) based on nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer region sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 11: 95-109
62. Lu L, Turland NJ. 2001. Resedaceae. In: Wu Z, Raven PH eds. Flora of China. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 8: 194-195
63. Manchester SR. 1999. Biogeographical relationships of North American Tertiary floras. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 86: 472-522
64. Manchester SR, Tiffney BH. 2001. Integration of paleobotanical and neobotanical data in the assessment of phytogeographic history of Holarctic angiosperm clades. International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: S19-S27.
65. Manos PS, Donoghue MJ. 2001. Progress in Northern Hemisphere phytogeography. International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: S1-S2.
66. Martín-Bravo S, Vargas P, Luceño M. 2009. Is Oligomeris (Resedaceae) indigenous to North America? Molecular evidence for a natural colonization from the OldWorld. American Journal of Botany 96: 507-518
67. Meusel H van. 1969. Beziehungen in der Florendifferenzierung von Eurasien und Nordamerika. Flora 158: 537-564
68. Meyers SC, Liston A. 2008. The biogeography of Plantago ovata Forssk. (Plantaginaceae). International Journal of Plant Sciences 169: 954-962
69. Moore DM, Raven PH. 1970. Cytogenetics, distribution, and amphitropical affinities of South American Camissonia (Onagraceae). Evolution 24: 816-823
70. Moore DM, Harborne JB, Williams CA. 1970. Chemotaxonomy, variation and geographical distribution of the Empetraceae. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 63: 277-293
71. Moore MJ, Jansen RJ. 2006. Molecular evidence for the age, origin, and evolutionary history of the American desert plant genus Tiquilia (Boraginaceae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39: 668-687
72. Moore MJ, Tye A, Jansen RK. 2006. Patterns of long-distance dispersal in Tiquilia subg. Tiquilia (Boraginaceae): implications for the origins of amphitropical disjuncts and Galapagos Island endemics. American Journal of Botany 93: 1163-1177
73. Nie Z-L, Wen J, Sun H, Bartholomew B. 2005. Monophyly of Kellogia Torrey ex Benth. (Rubiaceae) and evolution of its intercontinental disjuncton between western North America and eastern Asia. American Journal of Botany 92: 642-652
74. Nie Z-L, Sun H, Li H, Wen J. 2006a. Intercontinental biogeography of subfamily Orontioideae (Symplocarpus, Lysichiton, and Orontium) of Araceae in eastern Asia and North America. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40: 155-165
75. Nie Z-L, Sun H, Beardsley PM, Olmstead RG, Wen J. 2006b. Evolution of biogeographic disjunction between eastern Asia and eastern North America in Phryma (Phrymaceae). American Journal of Botany 93: 1343-1356
76. Nylander JAA, Olsson U, Alstrom P, Sanmartín I. 2008. Accounting for phylogenetic uncertainty in biogeography: a Bayesian approach to dispersal-vicariance analysis of the thrushes (Aves: Turdus). Systematic Biology 57: 257-268
77. Ochyra R, Buck WR. 2003. Arctoa fulvella, new to Tierra del Fuego, with notes on trans-American bipolar bryogeography. The Bryologist 106: 532-538
78. Peterson P, Columbus JT. 1997. Allelic variation in the amphitropical disjunct Scleropogon brevifolius (Poaceae: Eragrostideae). BioLlania, Edición Especial 6: 473-490
79. Peterson P, Herrera YA. 1995. Allozyme variation in the amphitropical disjunct Chaboissaea (Poaceae: Eragrostideae). Madroño 42: 427-449
80. Peterson P, Morrone O. 1997. Allelic variation in the amphitropical disjunct Lycurus setosus (Poaceae: Muhlenbergiinae). Madroño 44: 334-346
81. Peterson P, Ortiz-Diaz JJ. 1998. Allelic variation in the amphitropical disjunct Muhlenbergia torreyi (Poaceae: Muhlenbergiinae). Brittonia 50: 381-391
82. Qian H, Ricklefs RE. 2004. Geographic distribution and ecological conservatism of disjunct genera of vascular plants in eastern Asia and eastern North America. Journal of Ecology 92: 253-265
83. Raven PH. 1963. Amphitropical relationships in the floras of North and SouthAmerica. The Quarterly Reviewof Biology 38: 151-177
84. Raven PH. 1971. Floristic relationships between distant areas with Mediterranean-type climates. In: Davis P, Harper P, Hedge I eds. Plant life of south-west Asia. Aberdeen, UK: The Botanical Society of Edinburgh, The University Press. 119-134
85. Raven PH. 1972. Plant species disjunctions: a summary. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 59: 234-246
86. Raven PH. 1973. The evolution of Mediterranean floras. In: Di-Castri F, Mooney HA eds. Mediterranean type ecosystems: origin and structure. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 213-224
87. Raven PH, Axelrod DI. 1974. Biogeography and post continental movements. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 61: 539-673
88. Raven PH, Axelrod DI. 1975. History of the flora and fauna of Latin America. American Scientist 63: 420-429
89. Ree RH, Smith SA. 2008. Maximum-likelihood inference of geographic range evolution by dispersal, local extinction, and cladogenesis. Systematic Biology 57: 4-14
90. Ree RH, Moore BR, Webb CO, Donoghue MJ. 2005.A likelihood framework for inferring the evolution of geographic range on phylogenetic trees. Evolution 59: 2299-2311
91. Renner SS. 2005. Relaxed molecular clocks for dating historical plant dispersal events. Trends in Plant Science 10: 550-558
92. Richardson JE, Pennington RT, Pennington TD, Hollingsworth PM. 2001. Rapid diversification of a species-rich genus of neotropical rain forest trees. Science 293: 2242-2245
93. Rieseberg LH, Hanson MA, Philbrick CT. 1992. Androdioecy is derived from dioecy in Datiscaceae: evidence from restriction site mapping of PCR-amplified chloroplast DNA fragments. Systematic Botany 17: 324-336
94. Ronquist F. 1997. Dispersal-vicariance analysis: a new approach to the quantification of historical biogeography. Systematic Biology 46: 195-203
95. Sanderson MJ. 2002. Estimating absolute rates of molecular evolution and divergence times: a penalized likelihood approach. Molecular Biology and Evolution 19: 101-109
96. Sanderson MJ. 2003. R8s: inferring absolute rates of molecular evolution and divergence times in the absence of a molecular clock. Bioinformatics 19: 301-302
97. Sanmartín I. 2003. Dispersal vs. vicariance in the Mediterranean: historical biogeography of the Palearctic Pachydeminae (Coleoptera, Scarabaeoidea). Journal of Biogeography 30: 1883-1897
98. Sanmartín I, Ronquist F. 2004. Southern hemisphere biogeography inferred by event-based models: plant versus animal patterns. Systematic Biology 53: 216-243
99. Sanmartín I, Enghoff H, Ronquist F. 2001. Patterns of animal dispersal, vicariance and diversification in the Holarctic. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 73: 345-390
100. Scherson RA, Vidal R, Sanderson MJ. 2008. Phylogeny, biogeography, and rates of diversification of New World Astragalus (Leguminosae) with an emphasis on South American radiations. American Journal of Botany 95: 1030-1039
101. Schofield WB. 1984. Biogeography of the Pacific coast of North America. Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory 55: 35-43
102. Shaw AJ, Werner O, Ros RM. 2003. Intercontinental Mediterranean disjunct mosses: morphological and molecular patterns. American Journal of Botany 90: 540-550
103. Simpson BB, Tate JA, Weeks A. 2005. The biogeography of Hoffmanseggia (Leguminosae, Caesalpinoideae, Caesalpinieae): a tale of many travels. Journal of Biogeography 32: 15-27
104. Smith SA. 2009. Taking into account phylogenetic and divergence-time uncertainty in a parametric biogeographical analysis of the Northern Hemisphere plant clade Caprifolieae. Journal of Biogeography, (in press).
105. Solbrig OT. 1972. The floristic disjunctions between the "Monte" in Argentina and the "Sonoran desert" in Mexico and the United States. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 59: 218-223
106. Stebbins GL, Day A. 1967. Cytogenetic evidence for long continued stability in the genus Plantago. Evolution 21: 409-428
107. Swensen SM, Mullin BC, Chase MW. 1994. Phylogenetic affinities of Datiscaceae based on the analysis of nulceotide sequences from the plastid rbcL gene. Systematic Botany 19: 157-168
108. Swensen SM, Luthi JN, Rieseberg LH. 1998. Datiscaceae revisited: monophyly and the sequence of breeding system evolution. Systematic Botany 23: 157-169
109. Sykes GR, Christensen AH, Peterson PM. 1997. A chloroplast DNA analysis of Chaboissaea (Poaceae: Eragrostideae). Systematic Botany 22: 291-302
110. Thorne JL, Kishino H. 2002. Divergence time and evolutionary rate estimationwith multilocus data. Systematic Biology 51: 689-702
111. Thorne RF. 1972. Major disjunctions in the geographic ranges of seed plants. The Quarterly Review of Biology 47: 365-411
112. Tiffney BH. 1985. The Eocene North Atlantic land bridge: its importance in Tertiary and modern phytogeography of the northern hemisphere. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 66: 243-273
113. Tiffney BH, Manchester SR. 2001. The use of geological and paleontological evidence in evaluating plant phylogeographic hypotheses in the Northern Hemisphere Tertiary. International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: S3-S17.
114. Ulbrich E. 1934. Chenopodiaceae. I. In: Engler A, Prantl K eds. Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. 2nd edn, 16c. Leipzig: Duncker & Humbolt. 379-584
115. Vargas P, Balwin B, Constance L. 1998. Nuclear ribosomal DNA evidence for a western North American origin of Hawaiian and South American species of Sanicula (Apiaceae). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 95: 235-240
116. Vargas P, Rossello JA, Oyama R, Güemes J. 2004. Molecular evidence for naturalness of genera in the tribe Antirrhineae (Scrophulariaceae) and three independent evolutionary lineages from the New World and the Old. Plant Systematics and Evolution 249: 151-172
117. Wen J. 1999. Evolution of eastern Asian and eastern North American disjunct distributions in flowering plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 30: 421-455
118. Wen J. 2001. Evolution of eastern Asian-eastern North American biogeographic disjunctions: a few additional issues. International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: S117-S122.
119. Wen J, Stuessy TF. 1993. Phylogeny and biogeography of Nyssa (Cornaceae). Systematic Botany 18: 68-79
120. Wen J, Jansen RK, Zimmer EA. 1996. Phylogenetic relationships and DNA sequence divergence of eastern Asian and eastern North American disjunct plants. In: Nei M, Takahata N eds. Current topics in molecular evolution. Hayama: Graduate School for Advanced Studies. 37-44
121. Wen J, Shi S, Jansen RK, Zimmer EA. 1998. Phylogeny and biogeography of Aralia sect. Aralia (Araliaceae). American Journal of Botany 85: 866-875
122. Wen J, Lowry II PP, Walck JL, Yoo K-O. 2002. Phylogenetic and biogeographic diversification in Osmorhiza (Apiaceae). Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 89: 414-428
123. Wiens JJ, Donoghue MJ. 2004. Historical biogeography, ecology and species richness. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 639-644
124. Wolfe JA. 1975. Some aspects of plant geography in the northern hemisphere during the late Cretaceous and Tertiary. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 62: 264-279
125. Wolfe KH, Li WH, Sharp PM. 1987. Rates of nucleotide substitution vary greatly among plant mitochondrial, chloroplast, and nuclear DNAs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 84: 9054-9058
126. Wu Z. 1983. On the significance of Pacific intercontinental discontinuity. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 70: 577-590
127. Xiang Q-Y, Soltis DE, Soltis PS. 1998. The eastern Asian and eastern and western North America floristic disjunction: congruent phylogenetic patterns in seven diverse genera. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 10: 178-190
128. Xiang Q-Y, Zhang WH, Ricklefs RE. 2004. Regional differences in rates of plant speciation and molecular evolution: a comparison between eastern Asia and eastern North America. Evolution 58: 2175-2184
129. Xiang Q-Y, Thomas DT, Zhang W, Manchester SR, Murrell Z. 2006. Species level phylogeny of the genus Cornus (Cornaceae) based on molecular and morphological evidence: implications for taxonomy and Tertiary intercontinental migration. Taxon 55: 9-30
130. Yi T, Miller AJ, Wen J. 2004. Phylogenetic and biogeographic diversification of Rhus (Anacardiaceae) in the northern hemisphere. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 33: 861-879
131. Zurawski G, Clegg MT. 1987. Evolution of higher plant chloroplast DNA-encoded genes: Implications for structure function and phylogenetic studies. Annual Review of Plant Physiology 38: 391-418.