Recent findings on the pathogenesis of bronchial asthma Part II. The role of hormonal predisposition, environmental influences and conditioning leading to bronchial asthma

Acta Physiologica Hungarica

Volumn 96, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 289-305

  Szekely J I ^a   Pataki, Á ^a  

^a SEMMELWEIS UNIVERSITY   (Hungary)

Author keywords

Allergens; Asthma; Atopic diseases; Etiology; Insulin; Insulin like growth factor; Th1 Th2 ratio; Transplacental priming

Indexed keywords

ALLERGEN; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR; GROWTH FACTOR; INSULIN; PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR; SOMATOMEDIN C; TESTOSTERONE; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; HORMONE;

ASTHMA; ATOPY; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; COMORBIDITY; CONDITIONED REFLEX; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; HEREDITY; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; IMMUNITY; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; MATERNAL AGE; MATERNAL SMOKING; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PATHOGENESIS; PERSONAL HYGIENE; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PROTEIN FUNCTION; RACE DIFFERENCE; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; TH1 CELL; TH2 CELL; TISSUE INJURY; WEIGHT GAIN; ANIMAL; ENVIRONMENT; FEMALE; IMMUNOLOGY; MALE; METABOLISM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREGNANCY; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR;

ALLERGENS; ANIMALS; ASTHMA; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; COMORBIDITY; ENVIRONMENT; FEMALE; HORMONES; HUMANS; MALE; PREGNANCY; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; TH1 CELLS; TH2 CELLS;

EID: 70349786820     PISSN: 0231424X     EISSN: 15882683     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1556/APhysiol.96.2009.3.4     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Abalo R, Goicoecha C, Martin MI: Blockade of Gi/o proteins modifies the electrical activity of S-myenteric neurons from guinea-pig ileum. Neurosci. Lett. 356, 175-178 (2004)
2. Ader R: Conditioned immunomodulation: Research needs and directions. Brain Behav. Immunity 17, S51-S57 (2003)
3. Al-Frayh AS, Hasnain SM, Gad-El-Rab MO, Schwartz B, Al-Mobairek K, Al Sedairy ST: House dust mite allergens in Saudi Arabia: Regional variations and immune responses. Ann. Saudi Med. 17, 156-160 (1997)
4. Al Sakkaf L, Potzzilli P, Bingley PJ, Lowdell MW, Thomas JM, Bonifacio E, Gale EA: Early T-cell defects in pre-type 1 diabetes. Acta Diabetol. 28, 189-192 (1992)
5. Alvarez-Borda B, Ramírez-Amaya V, Pérez-Montfort R, Bermúdez-Rattoni F: Enhancement of antibody production by learning paradigm. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 64, 103-105 (1995)
6. Amsalem H, Gaiger A, Mizrahi S, Yagel S, Rachmilewitz J: Characterization of a lymphocyte subset displayaing a unique regulatory activity in human decidua. Int. Immunol. 20, 1147-1154 (2008)
7. Ashkar AA, Di Santo JP, Croy BA: Interferon gamma contributes to initiation of uterine vascular modification, decidual integrity, and uterine natural killer cell maturation during normal murine pregnancy. J. Exp. Med. 192, 259-270 (2000)
8. Ban M, Langonné I, Huguet N, Pépin E, Morel G: Inhaled chemicals may enhance allergic airway inflammation in ovalbumin sensitized mice. Toxicology 21, 161-171 (2006)
9. Barker DJ, Martyn CN: The maternal and fetal origins of cardiovascular disease. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 46, 8-11 (1992)
10. Barker DJP: In utero programming of chronic disease. Clin. Sci. 95, 115-128 (1998)
11. Barnett DW, Pressel DM, Chern HT, Sharp DW, Misler S: cAMP enhancing agents "permit" stimulussecretion coupling in canine pancreatic islet beta-cells. J. Membr. Biol. 138, 113-120 (1994)
12. Belmonte KE, Fryer AD, Costello RW: Role of insulin in antigen-induced airway eosinophilia and neuronal M2 muscarinic receptor dysfunction. J. Appl. Physiol. 85, 708-718 (1998)
13. Boldogh I, Bácsi A, Choudhury BK, Dharajiya N, Alam R, Hazra TK, Mitra S, Goldblum RM, Sur S: ROS generated by pollen NADPH oxidase provide a signal that augments antigen-induced allergic airway inflammation. J. Clin. Invest. 115, 2169-2179 (2005)
14. Boxall S, Holgate T, Davies DE: The contribution of transforming growth factor-βand epidermal growth factor signalling to airway remodelling in chronic asthma. Eur. Respir. J. 27, 208-229 (2006)
15. Brant A, Zekveld C, Welsh J, Jones M, Taylor AN, Cullinan P: The prognosis of occupational asthma due to detergent enzymes: clinical, immunological and employment outcomes. Clin. Exp. Allergy 36, 483-488 (2006)
16. Brito FF, Mur P, Barber D, Lombardero M, Galindo PA, Gómez E, Borja J: Occupational rhinoconjunctivits and asthma in a wool worker caused by Dermastidae spp. Allergy 57, 1191-1194 (2002)
17. Brown P, Gajdusek DC: Acute and chronic airway disease in pacific island Micronesians. Am. J. Epidemiol. 108, 266-273 (1978)
18. Buske-Kirschbaum A, Kirschbaum C, Stierle H, Jabaij L, Hellhammer D: Conditioned manipulation of natural killer (NK) cells in humans using discriminative learning protocol. Biol. Psychol. 38, 143-155 (1994)
19. Camargo CA, Weiss ST, Zhang S, Willett WC, Speizer FE: Prospective study of body mass index, weight change, and risk of adult onset asthma in women. Arch. Int. Med. 159, 2582-2588 (1999)
20. Cambrey AD, Kwon OJ, Gray AJ, Harrison NK, Yacoub M, Barnes PJ, Laurent GJ, Chung KF: Insulinlike growth factor I is a major fibroblast mitogen produced by primary cell cultures of human airway epithelial cells. Clin. Sci. (London), 89, 611-617 (1995)
21. Canning BJ, Mazzone SB: Reflex mechanisms in gastroesophageal reflux disease and asthma. Am. J. Med. 115 Suppl 3A, 45S-48S (2003)
22. Castell DO, Schnatz PF: Gastroesophageal reflux disease and asthma. Chest 108, 1187-1197 (2006)
23. Cavalher-Machado SC, de Lima WT, Damazo AS, de Frias Carvalho V, Martins MA, de Silva PM, Sannomiva P: Down regulation of mast cell activation and airway reactivity in diabetic rats: role of insulin. Eur. Respir. J. 24, 552-558 (2004)
24. Chen Y, Horne SL, Dosman JA: Body weight and weight gain related to pulmonary function decline in adults: a six year follow up study. Thorax 48, 375-380 (1993)
25. Chen G, Khalil N: TGF-β1 increases proliferation of airway smooth muscle cells by phosphorylation of MAP kinases. Respir. Res. 7: 2 (2006)
26. Chen CH, Zhang DH, LaPorte JM, Ray A: Cyclic AMP activates p38 mitogen-activated protein-kinase in Th2 cells: phosphorylation of GATA-3 and stimulation of Th2 cytokine gene expression. J. Immunol. 15, 5597-5607 (2000)
27. Chetty A, Cao GJ, Nielsen HC: Insulin-like growth factor-I signalling mechanisms, type I collagen and alpha smooth muscle actin in human foetal lung fibroblasts. Pediatr. Res. 60, 389-394 (2006)
28. Clauzel AM, Calvayrac, Michel FB: Variations of plasmatic cyclic nucleotides in the asthmatic patient (cyclic adenosine monophosphate and cyclic guanosine monophosphate) (in French). Poumon Coeur. 36, 295-302 (1980)
29. Collins MH, Moessinger AC, Kleinerman J, Bassi J, Rosso P, Collins AM, James LS, Blane VA: Fetal lung hypoplasia associated with maternal smoking: a morphometric analysis. Pediatr. Res. 19, 408-412 (1985)
30. Dal Piaz V, Giovannoni MP: Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors, structurally unrelated to rolipram, as promising agents for the treatment of asthma and other pathologies. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 35, 463-480 (2000)
31. Dimich-Ward H, Chung CY, Trask C: Contact with livestock-a protective effect against allergy and asthma? Clin. Exp. Allergy 36, 1122-1129 (2006)
32. Donevan CE, Finn PW: Immune mechanisms of childhood asthma. Thorax 54, 938-946 (1999)
33. Douek IF, Leech NJ, Gillmor HA, Bingley PJ, Gale EA: Children with type-1 diabetes and their unaffected siblings have fewer symptoms of asthma. Lancet 353, 1850 (1999)
34. Early EM, Reen DJ: Antigen independent responsiveness to interleukin-4 demonstrates differential regulation of newborn human T cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 26, 2885-2889 (1996).
35. Edenharter G, Bergmann RL, Bergmann KE, Wahn V, Forster J, Zepp F, Wahn U: Cord blood-IgE as risk factor and predictor for atopic diseases. Clin. Exp. Allergy 28, 671-678 (1998)
36. Ekerfelt C, Lidström C, Matthiesen L, Berg G, Sharma S, Ernerudh J.: Spontaneous secretion of interleukin-4, interleukin-10 and interferon-gamma by first trimester decidual mononuclear cells. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 47, 159-166 (2002)
37. Erickson RP, Graves PE: Genetic variation in beta-adrenergic receptors and their relationship to susceptibility for asthma and therapeutic response. Drug Metab. Dispos. 29, 557-561 (2001)
38. Glück J, Rogala B: Coexistence of bronchial asthma and diabetes mellitus type 2-retrospective analysis. Pol. Arch. Med. Wewn. 101, 39-43 (1999)
39. Gorczynski RM, Macrae S, Kennedy M: Conditioned immune response associated with allogenic skin grafts in mice. J. Immunol. 129, 714-719 (1982)
40. Gore JC, Schal C: Cockroach allergen biology and mitigation in the indoor environment. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 52, 439-463 (2007)
41. Gosens R, Nelemans SA, Hiemstra M, Grootte Bromhaar MM, Meurs H, Zaagsma J: Insulin induces a hypercontractile airway smooth muscle phenotype. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 481, 125-131 (2003)
42. Gregg I: Epidemiologic aspects. In: Clark TJH and Godfrey S. Eds. Asthma, London, Chapman and Hall 242-284 (1983) cit post Martinez FD: Role of viral infections in the inception of asthma and allergies during childhood: could they be protective? Thorax 49, 1189-1191 (1994)
43. Grill V: Cyclic AMP and insulin release. Acta Pediatr. Scand. 270 Suppl. 41-47 (1977)
44. Hamano M, Terada N, Maesako K, Numata T, Konno A: Effect of sex hormones on eosinophilic inflammation in nasal mucosa. Allergy Asthma Proc. 19, 263-269 (1998)
45. Hamilton, LM, Torres-Lozano C, Puddicombe SM, Richter A, Kimber I, Deaman RJ, Vrugt B, Aalbers R, Holgate ST, Djukanović R, Wilson SJ, Davies DE: The role of epidermal growth factor receptor in sustaining neutrophil inflammation in severe asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy 33, 233-240 (2003)
46. Hanna N, Bonifacio L, Reddy P, Hanna I, Weinberger B, Murphy S, Laskin D, Sharma S: INF-gamma mediated inhibition of COX-2 expression in the placenta from term and preterm labor pregnancies. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 51, 311-318 (2004)
47. Havemann BD, Henderson CA, El-Serag HB: Gastro-oesophageal reflux and asthma in childhood: a study on their relationship using the association between gastro-oesophageal reflux disease and asthma: a systematic review. Gut 56, 1654-1664 (2007)
48. Hayashi T, Adachi Y, Hasagewa K, Morimoto M: Less sensitivity for late airway inflammation in males than in females in BALB/c mice. Scand. J. Immunol. 57, 562-567 (2003)
49. Hilkens CM, Vermeeulen H, van Neerven RJ, Snijdewint FG, Wierenga EA, Kapsenberg ML: Differential modulation of T helper type 1 (Th1) and T helper type 2 (Th2) cytokine secretion by prostaglandin E2 critically depends on interleukin-2. Eur. J. Immunol. 25, 59-63 (1995)
50. Holgate ST, Davies DE, Powell RM, Howarth PH, Haitchi HM, Holloway JW: Local genetic and environmental factors in asthma pathogenesis: chronicity and persistence mechanisms. Eur. Respir. J. 29, 793-803 (2007).
51. Hoshino M, Nakamura Y, Sim JJ: Expression of growth factors and remodelling of the airway wall in bronchial asthma. Thorax 53 (21-27) 1998/a
52. Hoshino M, Nakamura Y, Sim JJ, Yamashiro Y, Uchida K, Hosaka K, Isogai S: Inhaled corticosteroids reduced lamina reticularis of the basement membrane by modulation of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)- I expression in bronchial asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy 28, 568-577 (1998/b)
53. Ingram JL, Bonner JC: EGF and PDGF receptor tyrosine kinases as therapeutic targets for chronic lung disease. Curr. Mol. Med. 6, 409-421 (2006)
54. Jaakkola JJ, Jaakkola MS: Professional cleaning and asthma. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 6, 85-90 (2006)
55. Jones CA, Finlay-Jones JJ, Hart PP: Type-1 and type-2 cytokines in human late-gestation decidual tissue. Biol. Reprod. 57, 303-311 (1997
56. Jones CA, Miles EA, Warner JO, Colwell BM, Bryant TN, Warner JA: Foetal peripheral blood mononuclear cell proliferative responses to mitogenic and allergenic stimuli during gestation. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 7, 109-116 (1996)
57. Kato T, Rada-Oikawa S, Takahashi K, Saito K, Wang L, Nishio A, Hakamada-Taguchi R, Kawanishi S, Kuribayashi K: Endocrine disruptors that deplete gluthatione levels in APC promote Th2 polarization in mice leading to the exacerbation of airway inflammation. Eur. J. Immunol. 36, 1199-1209 (2006)
58. Kaur M, Chivers JM, Giembycz MA, Newton R: Long acting beta2-adrenoceptor agonists synergistically enhance glucocorticoid-dependent transcription in human airway epithelial and smooth muscle cells. Mol. Pharmacol. 73, 203-214 (2008)
59. Kizkin O, Suleyman GT, Hacievliyagil S, Gunen H: Proteolytic enzyme sensitivity and decrease in respiratory function (a 10-year follow-up). Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 75, 441-444 (2002)
60. Kurucz I, Tóth S, Németh K, Török K, Csillik-Perczel V, Pataki A, Salamon C, Nagy Z, Székely JI, Horváth K, Bodor N: Potency and specificity of the pharmacological action of a new, antiasthmatic, topically administered soft steroid, etiprednol dicloacetate (BNP-166). J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 307, 83-92 (2003)
61. Lasser E: Asthma and diabetes mellitus: a biochemical basis for antithecal features. Med. Hypotheses 23, 95-106 (1987)
62. Leynaert B, Guilloud-Bataille M, Soussan D, Benessiano J, Guénégou A, Pin I, Neukirch F: Association between farm exposure and atopy, according to the CD14C-159T polymorphism. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 118, 658-665 (2006)
63. Lima JO, Zhang L, Prescott-Atkinsson T, Philips J, Dasnayake AP, Schröder HW Jr.: Early expression of Iε, CD23 (FcεRII), IL-4Rα and IgE in the human foetus. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 106, 911-917 (2000)
64. Lucas D, Jegaden D, Lodde B, Arvieux C, Dewitte JD: Occupational asthma in maritime environment. Int. Marit. Health 57, 177-187 (2006)
65. Magnusson CG: Maternal smoking influences cord serum IgE and IgD levels and increases the risk for subsequent infant allergy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 78, 898-904 (1986)
66. Mansfield LE, Stein MR: Gastroesophageal reflux: possible reflex mechanism. J. Pediatr. 111, 612-614 (1987)
67. Mantle J, Pepys J: Asthma amongst Tristan da Cunha islander. Clin. Allergy 4, 161-170 (1974)
68. Mariani F, Price JF, Lemeny DM: The IgG subclass antibody response to an inhalant antigen (Dermatophagoides pternonyssimus) during the first year of life: evidence for early stimulation of the immune system following natural exposure. Clin. Exp. Allergy 22, 29-33 (1992)
69. Martinez FD: Role of viral infection in the inception of asthma and allergies during childhood: could they be protective? Thorax 49, 1189-1991 (1994)
70. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Morgan WJ, Taussig LM: Maternal age as a risk factor for wheezing lower respiratory illness in the first year of life. Am. J. Epidemiol. 136, 1258-1268 (1992)
71. Mathew JL, Singh M, Mittal SK: Gastro-oesophageal reflux and bronchial asthma: current status and future directions. Postgrad. Med. J. 80, 701-705 (2004)
72. Matricardi PM, Grüber C, Wahn U, Lau S: The asthma-obesity link in childhood: open questions, complex evidence, a few answers only. Clin. Exp. Allergy 37, 376-384 (2007)
73. Matsui EC, Eggleston PA, Breysse PN, Rand CS, Diette GB: Mouse allergen specific antibody responses in inner-city children with asthma. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 119, 910-915 (2007)
74. Matthiesen L, Berg G, Ernerudh J, Håkansson L: Lymphocyte subsets and mitogen stimulation of blood lymphocytes in normal pregnancy. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 35, 70-79 (1996)
75. Mattsson R, Holmdahl R, Scheynius A, Bernadotte F, Mattson A, Van der Meide PH: Placental MHC class I antigen expression is induced in mice following in vivo treatment with recombinant interferongamma. J. Reprod. Immunol. 19, 115-129 (1991)
76. Mileva Zs, Maleeva A: The serum testosterone level of patients with bronchial asthma treated with corticosteroids and untreated (in Bulgarian). Vutr. Boles. 27, 29-32 (1988)
77. Mitchell VL, Gerschwin LJ: Progesterone and environmental tobacco smoke act synergistically to exacerbate he development of allergic asthma in a mouse model. Clin. Exp. Allergy 37, 276-286 (2007)
78. Montealllegre F, Delgado A, Toro A, Vargas W, Chardon D, Bayona M, Campbell E: Alfa1 antitrypsin and protease levels in Perto Rican asthmatics: a pilot study. P. R. Health Sci. 25, 117-125 (2006)
79. Mulligan T, Frick MF, Zuraw QC, Stemhagen A, McWhirter C: Prevalence of hypogonadism in males aged at least 45 years: the HIM study. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 60, 762-769 (2006).
80. Niedoszytko M, Chelmiaska M, Jassem E, Czestochowska E: Association between sensitization to Aureobasidium pullulans (Pullularia sp.) and severity of asthma. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 98, 153-156 (2007)
81. Nickmilder M, Carbonelle S, Bernard A: House cleaning with chlorine bleach and the risk of allergic and respiratory diseases in children. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 18, 27-35 (2007)
82. Ohno T, Kato N, Ishii C, Shimizu M, Ito Y, Tomono S, Kawazu S: Genistein augments cyclic adenosine 3'5'- monophospate (cAMP) accumulation and insulin release in MIN6 cells. Endocr. Res. 19, 273-285 (1993)
83. Ole Fanger P: What is IAQ? Indoor Air 16, 328-334 (2006)
84. Oyamada H, Kayaba H, Kamada Y, Kuwasaki T, Yamada Y, Kobayashi Y, Cui C, Honda K, Saito N, Chihara J: An optimal condition of bronchial cell proliferation stimulated by insulin-like growth factor-I. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 122 Suppl. 1, 59-62 (2000)
85. Palma-Carlos AG, Plama-Carlos ML: Drug allergy and asthma. Eur. Ann. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 39, 193-194 (2007)
86. Pastorino AC, Rimazza RD, Leone C, Castro AP, Solé D, Jacob CM: Risk factors for asthma in adolescents in a large urban region of Brazil. J. Asthma 43, 695-700 (2006)
87. Perry TT, Wood RA, Matsui EC, Curtin-Brosnan J, Rand C, Eggleston PA: Room-specific characteristics of suburban homes as predictors of indoor allergen concentrations. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 97, 628-635 (2006)
88. Phipps S, Benyahia F, Ou TT, Barkans J, Robinson DS, Kay AB: Acute allergen-induced airway remodelling in atopic asthma. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 31, 626-632 (2004) (Pubitemid 39587492)
89. Poulain M, Doucet M, Major CG, Drapeau V, Sériès F, Boulat LP, Tremblay A, Maltais F: The effect on chronic respiratory diseases: pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies. CMAJ 174, 1293-1299 (2006)
90. Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Holt BJ, Smallacombe TB, Loh R, Sly PD, Holt PG: Transplacental priming of the human immune system to experimental allergens: universal skewing of initial T cell responses toward the Th2 cytokine profile. J. Immunol. 160, 4730-4737 (1998)
91. Redington AE, Madden J, Frew AJ, Djukanović R, Roche WR, Holgate ST, Howarth PH: Transforming growth factor-β1 in asthma. Measurement in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Am. J. Crit. Care Med. 156, 642-647 (1997)
92. Ridolo E, Albertini R, Giordano D, Soliani L, Usberti I, Dall'Aglio PP: Airborn pollen concentrations and the incidence of allergic asthma and rhinoconjuctivitis in northern Italy from 1992 to 2003. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 142, 151-157 (2007)
93. Rinas U, Horneff G, Wahn V: Interferon-γ production by cord blood mononuclear cells is reduced in newborns with a family history of atopic disease and is independent from cord blood IgE levels. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 4, 60-64 (1993)
94. Sato T, Bewtra AK, Hopp RJ, Nair N, Townley RG: Alpha- and beta-adrenergic-receptor systems in bronchial asthma and in subjects without asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 86, 839-850 (1990)
95. Sarnat JA, Holguin F: Asthma and air quality. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 13, 63-66 (2007)
96. Schwartz J, Gold D, Dockery DW, Weiss ST, Speizer FE: Predictors of asthma and persistent wheeze in a national sample of children in the United States. Association with social class, perinatal events and race. Ann. Rev. Respir. Dis. 142, 555-562 (1990)
97. Semlali A, Jacques E, Piante S, Biardel S, Milot J, Laviolette M, Boulet LP, Chakir J: TGF-β suppresses MAPK signalling and proliferation in asthmatic epithelial cells. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 38, 202-208 (2007)
98. Shaheen SO, Hines M, Newson RB, Wheler M, Herrick DR, Strachan DP, Jones RW, Burney PG, Henderson AJ: Maternal testosterone in pregnancy and atopic outcomes in childhood. Allergy 62, 25-32 (2007)
99. Shaheen SO, Sterne JAC, Montgomery SM, Azima H: Birth weight, body mass index and asthma in young adults. Thorax 54, 396-402 (1999)
100. Sharma HP, Hansel NN, Matsui E, Diette GB, Eggleston P, Breysse P: Indoor environmental influences on children's asthma. Pediatr. Clin. North. Am. 54, 103-120 (2007)
101. Sharma K, Muldoon SP, Potter MF, Pence HL: Ladybug hypersensitivity among residents of homes infested with ladybugs in Kentucky. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 97, 528-531 (2006)
102. Simpson CR, Anderson WJ, Helms PJ, Taylor MW, Watson L, Prescott GJ, Godden DJ: Coincidence of immune-mediated diseases driven by Th1 and Th2 subsets suggests a common etiology. A populationbased study using computerized general practice data. Clin. Exp. Allergy 32, 37-42 (2002)
103. Splawski JB, Lipsky PE: Prostaglandin E2 inhibits T cell dependent Ig secretion by neonatal but not adult lymphocytes. J. Immnol. 152, 5259-5267 (1994)
104. Stratchan DP: Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ 299, 1259-1260 (1989)
105. Suratt PM, Wilhoit SC, Hsiao HS, Atkinson RL, Rochester DF: Compliance of the chest wall in obese subjects. J. Appl. Physiol. 57, 403-407 (1984)
106. Suzuki A, Palmer G, Bonjour JP, Caverzasio J: Stimulation of sodium dependent inorganic phosphate transport by activation of Gi/o-preotein-coupled receptors by epinephrine in MC3T3-E1 osteoblast-like cells. Bone 28, 589-594 (2001)
107. Szczeklik A, Pieton R, Sieradzki J: Alternation in both insulin release and its hypoglycemic effects in atopic bronchial asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 66, 424-427 (1980)
108. Szekeres-Barthó J, Faust Z, Varga P, Szereday L, Kelemen K: The immunological pregnancy protective effect of progesterone is manifested via controlling cytokine production. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 35, 348-351 (1996)
109. Tamaoka M, Hassan M, McGoverm T, Ramos-Barbón D, Jo T, Yoshizawa T, Tolloczko B, Hamid Q, Martin JG: The epidermal growth factor receptor mediates allergic airway remodelling in rat. Eur. J. Respir. 32, 1212-1223 (2008)
110. Piccini MP, Giudizi MG, Biagiotti R, Beloni L, Giannarini L, Sampognaro S, Parroncshi P, Manett R, Annunziato F, Livi C, et al.: Progesterone favours the development of human T helper cells producing Th2-type cytokines and promotes both IL-4 production and membrane CD30 expression in established Th1 cell clones. J. Immunol. 155, 128-133 (1995)
111. Uksila J, Lassila O, Hirvonen T, Toivanen O: Development of natural killer cell function in the human fetus. J. Immunol. 130, 153-156 (1983)
112. Vesper S, McKinstry C, Haugland R, Neas L, Hudgens E, Heidenfelder B, Gallagher J: Higher environmental relative mouldiness index (ERMI(sm)) values measured in Detroit homes of severely asthmatic children. Sci. Total Environ. 394, 192-196 (2008)
113. Vianna EO, Garcia-Leme J: Allergen-induced airway inflammation in rats. Role of insulin. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151, 809-814 (1995)
114. Von Mutius E, Martinez FD, Fritzsch C, Nicolai T, Roell G, Thiemann HH: Skin test reactivity and the number of siblings. BMJ 308, 692-695 (1994/a)
115. Von Mutius E, Martinez FD, Fritzsch C, Nicolai T, Reitmeir P, Thiemann HH: Prevalence of asthma and atopy in two areas of West and East Germany. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149, 358-364 (1994/b)
116. Whaley AE, Meka CS, Harbison LA, Hunt JS, Imakawa K: Identification and cellular localization of unique interferon mRNA from human placenta. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 10864-10868 (1994)
117. Wegmann TG, Lin H, Guilbert L, Mosmann TR: Bidirectional cytokine interactions in the maternal-fetal relationship: is successful pregnancy a Th2 phenomenon? Immunol. Today 14, 353-356 (1993)
118. Weth G, Koch H, Haubitz J: Behavior of the second messenger cAMP in status asthmaticus before and following administration of theophyllin- ethylenediamine (in German). Arzneimittelforschung 35, 1859-1862 (1985)
119. Wolthers OD, Juul A, Hansen M, Müller J, Pedersen S: The insulin-like growth factor axis and collagen turnover in asthmatic children treated with inhaled budesonide. Acta Pediatr. 84, 393-397 (1995)
120. Wong WS, Koch DS: Advances in the immunopharmacology of asthma. Biochem. Pharmacol. 59, 1323-1335 (2000)
121. Wong WS, Leong KP: Tyrosine kinase inhibitors: a new approach for asthma. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1697, 53-69 (2004)
122. Wright MA, Snider HL: Gastroesophageal reflux-induced bronchial constriction. Chest 108, 1187-1188 (1995)
123. Wynes MW, Riches DW: Induction of insulin-like growth factor-I expression by the Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-13. J. Immunol. 171, 3550-3559 (2003)
124. Yamashita N, Tashimo H, Ishida H, Matsuo Y, Arai H, Nagas H, Adachi T, Ohta K: Role of insulin-like growth factor-I in allergen-induced airway inflammation and remodeling. Cell Immunol. 235, 85-91 (2005)
125. Yi FC, Sheck LP, Cheong N, Chua KY, Lee BW: Molecular cloning of Blomia tropicalis - a major source of dust mite allergens in the tropics and subtropics. Inflamm. Allergy Drug Targets 5, 262-266 (2006)
126. Zhao Z, Sebastian A, Larsson L, Wang Z, Zhang Z, Norbäck D: Asthmatic symptoms among pupils in relation microbial dust exposure in schools in Taiyuan, China. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. Epub. Ahead of print (2008)
127. Zwiener C, Richardson SD, DeMarini DM, Grummt T, Glauner T, Frimel FH: Drawning in disinfection byproducts? Assessing swimming pool water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 363-372 (2007)