In utero programming of chronic disease

Clinical Science

Volumn 95, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 115-128

  Barker, D J P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Coronary heart disease; Diabetes; Fetus; Hypertension; Programming; Undernutrition

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AGED; BIRTH WEIGHT; BLOOD FLOW; CHILD GROWTH; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; DIABETES MELLITUS; FEMALE; FETUS DEVELOPMENT; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MALNUTRITION; MATERNAL NUTRITION; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; STROKE; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE;

EID: 0031661215     PISSN: 01435221     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1042/cs0950115     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Widdowson, E. M. and McCance, R. A. (1975) A review: new thoughts on growth. Pediatr. Res. 9, 154-156
2. Lucas, A. (1991) Programming by early nutrition in man. In The Childhood Environment and Adult Disease (Bock, G. R. and Whelen, J., eds.), pp. 38-55, Wiley, Chichester
3. Lucas, A. (1994) Role of nutritional programming in determining adult morbidity. Arch. Dis. Child. 71, 288-290
4. Diamond, J. (1991) Pearl Harbor and the Emperor's physiologists. Natural History 12, 2-7
5. Barker, D. J. P. (1995) Fetal origins of coronary heart disease. Br. Med. J. 311, 171-174
6. Barker, D. J. P. (1998) Mothers, babies and health in later life. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh
7. Fowden, A. L. (1995) Endocrine regulation of fetal growth. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 7, 351-363
8. Harding, J. E. and Johnston, B. M. (1995) Nutrition and fetal growth. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 7, 539-547
9. Widdowson, E. M. (1974) Immediate and long-term consequences of being large or small at birth: a comparative approach. In Size at Birth (Elliott, K. and Knight, J., eds.), pp. 65-82, Ciba Symposium 27, Elsevier, Amsterdam
10. Hinchliffe, S. A., Lynch, M. R. J., Sargent, P. H., Howard, C. V. and Van Velzen, D. (1992) The effect of intrauterine growth retardation on the development of renal nephrons. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 99, 296-301
11. Campbell, A. G. M., Dawes, G. S., Fishman, A.P and Hyman, A. I. (1967) Regional redistribution of blood flow in the mature fetal lamb. Circ. Res. 21, 229-235
12. Rudolph, A. M. (1984) The fetal circulation and its response to stress. J. Dev. Physiol. 6, 11-19
13. Fowden, A. L. (1989) The role of insulin in prenatal growth. J. Dev. Physiol. 12, 173-182
14. Oliver, M. H., Harding, J. E., Breier, B. H., Evans, P. C. and Gluckman, P. D. (1993) Glucose but not a mixed amino acid infusion regulates plasma insulin-like growth factor-1 concentrations in fetal sheep. Pediatr. Res. 34, 62-65
15. Barker, D. J. P. and Osmond, C. (1986) Infant mortality, childhood nutrition and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet 1, 1077-1081
16. Barker, D. J. P., Bull, A. R., Osmond, C. and Simmonds, S. J. (1990) Fetal and placental size and risk of hypertension in adult life. Br. Med. J. 301, 259-262
17. Barker, D. J. P., Osmond, C., Simmonds, S. J. and Wield, G. A. (1993) The relation of small head circumference and thinness at birth to death from cardiovascular disease in adult life. Br. Med. J. 306, 422-426
18. Osmond, C., Barker, D. J. P., Winter, P. D., Fall, C. H. D. and Simmonds, S. J. (1993) Early growth and death from cardiovascular disease in women. Br. Med. J. 307, 1519-1524
19. Leon, D. A., Lithell, H., Vagero, D., McKeigue, P. and Koupilova, I. (1997) Biological and social influences on mortality in a cohort of 15 000 Swedes followed from birth to old age. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 51, 594 (Abstract)
20. Frankel, S., Elwood, P., Sweetnam, P., Yarnell, J. and Davey Smith, G. (1996) Birthweight, body-mass index in middle age, and incident coronary heart disease. Lancet 348, 1478-1480
21. Rich-Edwards, J. W., Stampfer, M. J., Manson, J. E., et al. (1997) Birth weight and risk of cardiovascular disease in a cohort of women followed up since 1976. Br. Med. J. 315, 396-400
22. Stein, C. E., Fall, C. H. D., Kumaran, K., Osmond, C., Cox, V. and Barker, D. J. P. (1996) Fetal growth and coronary heart disease in South India. Lancet 348, 1269-1273
23. Martyn, C. N., Barker, D. J. P. and Osmond, C. (1996) Mothers' pelvic size, fetal growth, and death from stroke and coronary heart disease in men in the UK. Lancet 348, 1264-1268
24. Forsen, T., Eriksson, J. G., Tuomilehto, J., Teramo, K., Osmond, C. and Barker, D. J. P. (1997) Mother's weight in pregnancy and coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men: follow-up study. Br. Med. J. 315, 837-840
25. Kramer, M. S. and Joseph, K. S. (1996) Commentary: Enigma of fetal/infant origins hypothesis. Lancet 348, 1254-1255
26. Paneth, N. and Susser, M. (1995) Early origin of coronary heart disease (the 'Barker hypothesis'). Br. Med. J. 310, 411-412
27. Elford, J., Whincup, P. and Shaper, A. G. (1991) Early life experience and adult cardiovascular disease: longitudinal and case-control studies. Int. J. Epidemiol. 20, 833-844
28. Ben-Shlomo, Y. and Davey Smith, G. (1991) Deprivation in infancy or in adult life : which is more important for mortality risk? Lancet 337, 530-534
29. Hales, C. N., Barker, D. J, P., Clark, P. M. S., et al. (1991) Fetal and infant growth and impaired glucose tolerance at age 64. Br. Med. J. 303, 1019-1022
30. Barker, D. J. P., Osmond, C., Golding, J., Kuh, D. and Wadsworth, M. E. J. (1989) Growth in utero, blood pressure in childhood and adult life, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. Br. Med. J. 298, 564-567
31. Law, C. M. and Shiell, A. W. (1996) Is blood pressure inversely related to birth weight? The strength of evidence from a systematic review of the literature. J. Hypertens. 14, 935-941
32. Koupilova, I., Leon, D. A. and Vagero, D. (1997) Can confounding by sociodemographic and behavioural factors explain the association between size at birth and blood pressure at age 50 in Sweden? J. Epidemiol. Community Health 51, 14-18
33. Rose, G. (1985) Sick individuals and sick populations. Int. J. Epidemiol. 14, 32-38
34. Leon, D. A., Koupilova, I., Lithell, H. O., et al. (1996) Failure to realise growth potential in utero and adult obesity in relation to blood pressure in 50 year old Swedish men. Br. Med. J. 312, 401-406
35. Barker, D. J. P., Godfrey, K. M., Osmond, C. and Bull, A. (1992) The relation of fetal length, ponderal index and head circumference to blood pressure and the risk of hypertension in adult life. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 6, 35-44
36. Barker, D. J. P., Gluckman, P. D., Godfrey, K. M., Harding, J. E., Owens, J. A. and Robinson, J. S. (1993) Fetal nutrition and cardiovascular disease in adult life. Lancet 341, 938-941
37. Law, C. M., Barker, D. J. P., Bull, A. R. and Osmond, C. (1991) Maternal and fetal influences on blood pressure. Arch. Dis. Child. 66, 1291-1295
38. Taylor, S. J. C., Whincup, P. H., Cook, D. G., Papacosta, O. and Walker, M. (1997) Size at birth and blood pressure; cross sectional study in 8-11 year old children. Br. Med. J. 314, 475-480
39. Moore, V. M., Miller, A. G., Boulton, T. J. C., et al. (1996) Placental weight, birth measurements, and blood pressure at age 8 years. Arch. Dis. Child. 74, 538-541
40. Whincup, P., Cook, D., Papacosta, O. and Walker, M. (1995) Birth weight and blood pressure: cross sectional and longitudinal relations in childhood. Br. Med. J. 311, 773-776
41. Campbell, D. M., Hall, M. H., Barker, D. J. P., Cross, J., Shiell, A. W. and Godfrey, K. M. (1996) Diet in pregnancy and the offspring's blood pressure 40 years later. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 103, 273-280
42. McCrabb, G. J., Egan, A. R. and Hosking, B. J. (1992) Maternal undernutrition during mid-pregnancy in sheep; variable effects on placental growth. J. Agric. Sci. 118, 127-132
43. McCrabb, G. J., Egan, A. R. and Hosking, B. J. (1991) Maternal undernutrition during mid-pregnancy in sheep. Placental size and its relationship to calcium transfer during late pregnancy. Br. J. Nutr. 65, 157-168
44. Martyn, C. N., Barker, D. J. P., Jespersen, S., Greenwald, S., Osmond, C. and Berry C. (1995) Growth in utero, adult blood pressure, and arterial compliance. Br. Heart J. 73, 116-121
45. Whincup, P. H., Cook, D. G. and Shaper, A. G. (1989) Early influences on blood pressure: a study of children aged 5-7 years. Br. Med. J. 299, 587-591
46. Churchill, D., Perry, I. J. and Beevers, D. G. (1997) Ambulatory blood pressure in pregnancy and fetal growth. Lancet 349, 7-10
47. Langley, S. C. and Jackson, A. A. (1994) Increased systolic blood pressure in adult rats induced by fetal exposure to maternal low protein diets. Clin. Sci. 86, 217-222
48. Whincup, P., Cook, D., Papacosta, O., Walker, M. and Perry, I. (1994) Maternal factors and development of cardiovascular risk: evidence from a study of blood pressure in children. J. Hum. Hypertens. 8, 337-343
49. Godfrey, K. M., Forrester, T., Barker, D. J. P., et al. (1994) The relation of maternal nutritional status during pregnancy to blood pressure in childhood. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 101, 398-403
50. Clark, P. M., Atton, C., Law, C. M., Shiell, A., Godfrey, K. and Barker, D. J. P. (1998) Weight gain in pregnancy, triceps skinfold thickness and blood pressure in the offspring. Obstet. Gynaecol. 91, 103-107
51. Margetts, B. M., Rowland, M. G. M., Foord, F. A., Cruddas, A. M., Cole, T. J. and Barker, D. J. P. (1991) The relation of maternal weight to the blood pressures of Gambian children. Int. J. Epidemiol. 20, 938-943
52. Lever, A. F. and Harrap, S. B. (1992) Essential hypertension: a disorder of growth with origins in childhood? J. Hypertens. 10, 101-120
53. Kingdom, J. C. P., McQueen, J., Connell, J. M. C., Whittle, M. J. (1993) Fetal angiotensin II levels and vascular (Type 1) angiotensin receptors in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth retardation. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 100, 476-482
54. Martyn, C. N., Lever, A. F. and Morton, J. J. (1996) Plasma concentrations of inactive renin in adult life are related to indicators of foetal growth. J. Hypertens. 14, 881-886
55. Mackenzie, H. S. and Brenner, B. M. (1995) Fewer nephrons at birth: a missing link in the etiology of essential hypertension? Am. J. Kidney Dis. 26, 91-98
56. Brenner, B. M. and Chertow, G. M. (1993) Congenital oligonephropathy: an inborn cause of adult hypertension and progressive renal injury? Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 2, 691-695
57. Merlet-Benichou, C., Leroy, B., Gilbert, T. and Lelievre-Pegorier, M. (1993) Retard de croissance intra-uterin et deficit en nephrons (Intrauterine growth retardation and inborn nephron deficit). Medecine/Sciences 9, 777-780
58. Konje, J. C., Bell, S. C., Morton, J. J., de Chazal, R. and Taylor, D. J. (1996) Human fetal kidney morphometry during gestation and the relationship between weight, kidney morphometry and plasma active renin concentration at birth. Clin. Sci. 91, 169-175
59. Weder, A. B. and Schork, N. J. (1994) Adaptation, allometry, and hypertension. Hypertension 24, 145-156
60. Edwards, C. R. W., Benediktsson, R., Lindsay, R. S. and Seckl, J. R. (1993) Dysfunction of placental glucocorticoid barrier: link between fetal environment and adult hypertension? Lancet 341, 355-357
61. Seckl, J. R. (1994) Glucocorticoids and small babies. Q. J. Med. 87, 259-262
62. Clark, P. M., Hindmarsh, P. C., Shiell, A. W., Law, C. M., Honour, J. W. and Barker, D. J. P. (1996) Size at birth and adrenocortical function in childhood. Clin. Endocnnol. 45, 721-726
63. Fall, C. H. D., Pandit, A. N., Law, C. M., et al. (1995) Size at birth and plasma insulin-like growth factor-1 concentrations. Arch. Dis. Child. 73, 287-293
64. Ferns, G. A. A., Motani, A. S. and Anggard, E. E. (1991) The insulin-like growth factors: their putative role in atherogenesis. Artery 18, 197-225
65. Lehmann, E. D. (1996) Pulse wave velocity as a marker of vascular disease. Lancet 348, 744
66. Safar, M. E., Levy, B. I., Laurent, S. and London, G. M. (1990) Hypertension and the arterial system: clinical and therapeutic aspects. Hypertension 8 (Suppl. 7), S113-S119
67. Folkow, B. (1987) Structure and function of the arteries in hypertension. Am. Heart J. 114, 938-947
68. Martyn, C. N. and Greenwald, S. E. (1997) Impaired synthesis of elastin in walls of aorta and large conduit arteries during early development as an initiating event in pathogenesis of systemic hypertension. Lancet 350, 953-955
69. Rucker, R. B. and Tinker, D. (1977) Structure and metabolism of arterial elastin. Int. Rev. Exp. Pathol. 17, 1-47
70. Rucker, R. B. and Dubick, M. A. (1984) Elastin metabolism and chemistry: potential roles in lung development and structure. Environ. Health Perspect. 55, 179-191
71. Al-Ghazali, W., Chita, S. K., Chapman, M. G. and Allan, L. D. (1989) Evidence of redistribution of cardiac output in asymmetrical growth retardation. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 96, 697-704
72. Dicke, J. M. (1987) Poor obstetrical outcome. In Clinical Obstetrics (Pauerstein, C. J., ed.), pp. 421-439, John Wiley and Sons, New York
73. Rizzo, G. and Arduini, D. (1991) Fetal cardiac function in intrauterine growth retardation. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 165, 876-882
74. Veille, J. C., Hanson, R., Sivakoff, M., Hoen, H. and Ben-Ami, M. (1993) Fetal cardiac size in normal, intrauterine growth retarded, and diabetic pregnancies. Am. J. Perinatol. 10, 275-279
75. Murotsuki, J., Challis, J. R. G., Han, V. K. M., Fraher, L. J. and Gagnon, R. (1997) Chronic fetal placental embolization and hypoxemia cause hypertension and myocardial hypertrophy in fetal sheep. Am. J. Physiol. 272, R201-R207
76. Levy, D., Garrison, R. J., Savage, D. D., Kannel, W. B. and Castelli, W. P. (1990) Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framincham heart study. N. Engl. J. Med. 332, 1561-1566
77. Vijayakumar, M., Fall, C. H. D., Osmond, C. and Barker, D. J. P. (1995) Birth weight, weight at one year, and left ventricular mass in adult life. Br. Heart J. 73, 363-367
78. Zureik, M., Bonithon-Kopp, C., Lecomte, E., Siest, G. and Ducimetiere, P. (1996) Weights at birth and in early infancy, systolic pressure, and left ventricular structure in subjects aged 8 to 24 years. Hypertension 27, 339-345
79. Chapman, N., Mohamudally, A., Cerutti, A., et al. (1997) Retinal vascular network architecture in low-birth-weight men. J. Hypertens. 15, 1449-1453
80. Leeson, C. P. M., Whincup, P. H., Cook, D. G., et al. (1997) Flow-mediated dilation in 9-to 11-year old children. The influence of intrauterine and childhood factors. Circulation 96, 2233-2238
81. Julius, S., Krause, L., Schork, N. J., et al. (1991) Hyperkinetic borderline hypertension in Tecumseh, Michigan. J. Hypertens. 9, 77-84
82. Esler, M., Julius, S. and Zweifler, A. (1977) Mild high-renin essential hypertension: neurogenic human hypertension? N. Engl. J. Med. 296, 405-411
83. Phillips, D. I. W. and Barker, D. J. P. (1997) Association between low birthweight and high resting pulse in adult life: is the sympathetic nervous system involved in programming the insulin resistance syndrome? Diabet. Med. 14, 673-677
84. Mitchell, B. D., Valdez, R., Hazuda, H. P., Haffner, S. M., Monterrosa, A. and Stern, M. P. (1993) Differences in prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance according to maternal or paternal history of diabetes. Diabetes Care 16, 1262-1267
85. Fall, C. H. D., Osmond, C., Barker, D. J. P., et al. (1995) Fetal and infant growth and cardiovascular risk factors in women. Br. Med. J. 310, 428-432
86. Phipps, K., Barker, D. J. P., Hales, C. N., Fall, C. H. D., Osmond, C. and Clark, P. M. S. (1993) Fetal growth and impaired glucose tolerance in men and women. Diabetologia 36, 225-228
87. Lithell, H. O., McKeigue, P. M., Berglund, L., Mohsen, R., Lithell, U. B. and Leon, D. A. (1996) Relation of size it birth to non-insulin-dependent diabetes and insulin concentrations in men aged 50-60 years. Br. Med. J. 312, 406-410
88. Olah, K. S. (1996) Low maternal birthweight - an association with impaired glucose tolerance in pregnancy. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 16, 5-8
89. Curhan, G. C., Willett, W. C., Rimm, E. B. and Stampfer, M. J. (1996) Birth weight and adult hypertension and diabetes mellitus in US men. Am. J. Hypertens. 9, 11A (Abstract)
90. McCance, D. R., Pettitt, D. J., Hanson, R. L., Jacobsson, L. T. H., Knowler, W. C. and Bennett, P. H. (1994) Birth weight and non-insulin dependent diabetes: thrifty genotype, thrifty phenotype, or surviving small baby genotype? Br. Med. J. 308, 942-945
91. DeFronzo, R. A. (1988) The triumvirate: beta cell, muscle, liver. A collusion responsible for NIDDM. Diabetes 37, 667-687
92. Barker, D. J. P., Hales, C. N., Fall, C. H. D., Osmond, C., Phipps, K. and Clark, P. M. S. (1993). Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia (syndrome X): relation to reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia 36, 62-67
93. Phillips, D. I. W., Hirst, S., Clark, P. M. S., Hales, C. N. and Osmond, C. (1994) Fetal growth and insulin secretion in adult life. Diabetologia 37, 592-596
94. Valdez, R., Athens, M. A., Thompson, G. H., Bradshaw, B. S. and Stern, M. P. (1994) Birthweight and adult health outcomes in a biethnic population in the USA. Diabetologia 37, 624-631
95. Leger, J., Levy-Marchal, C., Bloch, J., et al. (1997) Reduced final height and indications for insulin resistance in 20 year olds born small for gestational age: regional cohort study. Br. Med. J. 315, 341-347
96. Ravelli, A. C. J., van der Meulen, J. H. P., Michels, R. P. J., et al. (1998) Glucose tolerance in adults after prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine. Lancet 351, 173-177
97. Law, C. M., Gordon, G. S., Shiell, A. W., Barker, D. J. P. and Hales, C. N. (1995) Thinness at birth and glucose tolerance in seven year old children. Diabet. Med. 12, 24-29
98. Whincup, P. H., Cook, D. G., Adshead, F., et al. (1997) Childhood size is more strongly related than size at birth to glucose and insulin levels in 10-11-year-old children. Diabetologia 40, 319-326
99. Yajnik, C. S., Fall, C. H. D., Vaidya, U., et al. (1995) Fetal growth and glucose and insulin metabolism in four-year-old Indian children. Diabet. Med. 12, 330-336
100. Forrester, T. E., Wilks, R. J., Bennett, F. I., et al. (1996) Fetal growth and cardiovascular risk factors in Jamaican schoolchildren. Br. Med. J. 312, 156-160
101. Robinson, S. M., Wheeler, T., Hayes, M. C., Barker, D. J. P. and Osmond, C. (1991) Fetal heart rate and intrauterine growth. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 98, 1223-1227
102. 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Diabetologia 38, 1205-1212
103. Bjorntorp, P. (1995) Insulin resistance: the consequence of a neuroendocrine disturbance? Int. J. Obesity 19 (Suppl. 1), S6-S10
104. Sobey, W. J., Beer, S. F., Carrington, C. A., et al. (1989) Sensitive and specific two-site immunoradiometric assays for human insulin, proinsulin, 65-66 split and 32-33 split proinsulins. Biochem. J. 260, 535-541
105. Temple, R. C., Carrington, C. A., Luzio, S. D., et al. (1989) Insulin deficiency in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Lancet i, 293-295
106. Van Assche, F. A. and Aerts, L. (1979) The fetal endocrine pancreas. Contrib. Gynecol. Obstet. 5, 44-57
107. Hellerström, C., Swenne, I. and Andersson, A. (1988) Islet cell replication and diabetes. In The Pathology of the Endocrine Pancreas in Diabetes (Lefebvre, P. J. and Pipeleers, D. G., eds.), pp. 141-170, Springer, Heidelberg
108. Hales, C. N. and Barker, D. J. P. (1992) Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: the thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Diabetologia 35, 595-601
109. Phillips, D. I. W., Barker, D. J. P., Hales, C. N., Hirst, S. and Osmond, C. (1994) Thinness at birth and insulin resistance in adult life. Diabetologia 37, 150-154
110. Alvarsson, M., Efendic, S. and Grill, V. E. (1994) Insulin responses to glucose in healthy males are associated with adult height but not with birth weight. J. Intern. Med. 236, 275-279
111. Robinson, S., Walton, R. J., Clark, P. M., Barker, D. J. P., Hales, C. N. and Osmond, C. (1992) The relation of fetal growth to plasma glucose in young men. Diabetologia 35, 444-446
112. Wills, J., Watson, J. M., Hales, C. N. and Phillips, D. I. W. (1996) The relation of fetal growth to insulin secretion in young men. Diabet. Med. 13, 773-774
113. Leger, J., Levy-Marchal, C., Block, J., et al. (1997) Evidence for insulin-resistance developing in young adults with intrauterine growth retardation. Diabetologia 40, A53 (Abstract)
114. Fall, C. H. D., Stein, C. E., Kumaran, K., et al. (1998) Size at birth, maternal weight, and non-insulin dependent diabetes in South India. Diabet. Med. 15, 220-227
115. Mather, H. M. and Keen, H. (1985) The Southall diabetes survey: prevalence of known diabetes in Asians and Europeans. Br. Med. J. 291, 1081-1084
116. McKeigue, P.M., Shah, B. and Marmot, M. G. (1991) Relation of central obesity and insulin resistance with high diabetes prevalence and cardiovascular risk in South Asians. Lancet 337, 382-386
117. Farmer, G., Russell, G., Hamilton-Nicol, D. R., et al. (1988) The influence of maternal glucose metabolism on fetal growth, development and morbidity in 917 singleton pregnancies in nondiabetic women. Diabetologia 31, 134-141
118. Barker, D. J. P., Martyn, C. N., Osmond, C., Hales, C. N. and Fall, C. H. D. (1993) Growth in utero and serum cholesterol concentrations in adult life. Br. Med. J. 307, 1524-1527
119. Barker, D. J. P., Meade, T. W., Fall, C. H. D., et al. (1992) Relation of fetal and infant growth to plasma fibrinogen and factor VII concentrations in adult life. Br. Med. J. 304, 148-152
120. Barker, D. J. P., Martyn, C. N., Osmond, C. and Wield, GA. (1995) Abnormal liver growth in utero and death from coronary heart disease. Br. Med. J. 310, 703-704
121. Hales, C. N., Desai, M., Ozanne, S. E. and Crowther, N. J. (1996) Fishing in the stream of diabetes: from measuring insulin to the control of fetal organogenesis. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 24, 341-350