Infections in early life and susceptibility to allergic diseases: Relevance of hygiene hypothesis

Current Science

Volumn 96, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 784-793

  Gangal, Sharad V ^a   Chowgule, Rohini ^a  

^a Kasturba Infectious Disease Hospital   (India)

Author keywords

Allergy; Dendritic cells; Early life infections; Hygiene hypothesis

Indexed keywords

EID: 70349083253     PISSN: 00113891     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. ISAAC Steering Committee, Worldwide variation in prevalence of asthma, allergic rhino-conjunctivitis and atopic eczema. Lancet, 1998, 351, 1225-1232.
2. European Community Respiratory Health Survey, Variations in the prevalence of respiratory symptoms, self reported asthma attack and use of asthma medication in the European Community Respiratory Health Survey. Eur. Respir. J., 1996, 9, 687-695.
3. Vishwanathan, R. M. et al., Epidemiology of asthma in an urban population, a random morbidity survey. J. Med. Assoc. India, 1966, 46, 480-483.
4. Chowgule, R. V., Shetye, V. M., Parmar, J. R., Bhosle, A. M., Khandagle, M. R., Palnitkar, S. V. and Gupta, P. C., Prevalence of respiratory symptoms, bronchial hyper-reactivity and asthma in a mega city - 'Results of the European Community Respiratory Health Survey' in Mumbai. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 1998, 158, 547-554.
5. Chhabra, S. K., Gupta, C. K., Chhabra, P. and Rajpal, S., Prevalence of bronchial asthma in school children in Delhi. J. Asthma, 1998, 3, 291-296.
6. Strachan, D. P., Hey fever, hygiene and houshold size. BMJ, 1989, 299, 1259-1260.
7. Strachan, D. P., Taylor, E. M. and Carpenter, R. G., Family structure, neonatal infection and hay fever in adolescence. Arch. Dis. Child., 1996, 74, 422-426.
8. Strachan, D. P., Griffiths, J. M., Anderson, H. R. and Johnston, I. D. A., Allergic sensitization and position in the sibship, a national study of young British adults. Thorax, 1994, 49, 1035.
9. Strachan, D. P., Harkins, L. S., Golding, J. and the ALSPAC study team. Sibship and self reported inhalant allergy among adult women. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 1997, 27, 151-155.
10. Mckeever, T. M., Lewis, S. A., Smith, C., Collins, J., Heatlie, H., Fischer, M. and Hubbard, R., Siblings multiple births and the incidence of allergic disease: a birth cohort study using the West Midlands general practice and research database. Thorax, 2001, 56, 758-762.
11. Mosmann, T. R. and Coffman, R. L., Th1 and Th2 cells: different patterns of lymphokines secretion lead to different functional properties. Am. Rev. Immunol., 1989, 7, 145-173.
12. Sehra, S., Chug, L. and Gangal, S. V., Polarized Th1 responses by liposome entrapped allergens and its potential in immunotherapy of allergic disorders. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 1998, 28, 1530-1537.
13. Moffat, M. F. and Cookson, W. O., The genetics of asthma, maternal effects in atopic disease. Clin. Exp. Allergy (Suppl. 1), 1998, 28, 56-61.
14. Cookson, W., The alliance of genes and environment in asthma and allergy. Nature (Suppl.), 1999, 402, B5-B11.
15. Holt, P. G. and Macaubas, C., Development of longterm tolerance versus sensitization to environmental allergens during the prenatal period. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 1997, 9, 782-787.
16. Gore, C. and Custovic, A., Protective parasites and medicinal microbes. The case for hygiene hypothesis. Primary Care Respir. J., 2005, 13, 68-75.
17. Yabuhara, A., Macubas, C., Prescott, S. L., Venaille, T. J., Habre, W., Sly, P. D. and Holt, P. G., The polarized immunological memory to inhalant allergens in atopics is established during infancy and early childhood. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 1997, 27, 1261-1269.
18. Holt, P. G. et al., T cell priming against environmental allergens in human neonates: sequential deletion of food antigens specificities during infancy with concomitant expansion of response to ubiquitous inhalant allergens. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol., 1995, 6, 85-90.
19. Holt, P. G., Clough, T. B., Holt, B. J., Baron-Hay, M. J., Rose, A. H., Robinson, B. W. S. and Thomas, W. R., Genetic risk for atopy is associated with delayed postnatal maturation of T cell competence. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 1992, 22, 1093-1099.
20. Holt, P. G., Sly, P. D. and Bjorksten, B., Atopic versus infectious diseases in childhood: a question of balance. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol., 1997, 8, 53-58.
21. Prescott, S. L. and Dunstan, J. A., Immune disregulation in allergic respiratory disease - The role of T regulatory cells. Pulmon. Pharmacol. Ther., 2005, 18, 217-228.
22. Bach, J. F., The effect of infection on susceptibility to autoimmune and allergic diseases. N. Engl. J. Med., 2002, 371, 911-920.
23. Romagnani, S., Regulatory T cells: which role in the pathogenesis and treatment of allergic disorders? Allergy, 2006, 61, 3-17.
24. - effector T cells. Nature Immunol., 2008, 9, 1247-1355.
25. Yazdanbakhsh, M., Kremsner, P. G. and Rice, R. V., Allergy parasites and the hygiene hypothesis. Science, 2002, 296, 490-494.
26. Hammad, H. and Lambrecht, B. N., Dendritic cells and epithelial cells: linking innate and adaptive immunity in asthma. Nature Rev. Immunol., 2008, 119, 3147-3148.
27. Kapsenberg, M. L., Dendritic cell control of pathogen driven T cell polarization. Nature Rev., Immunol., 2003, 3, 984-993.
28. Horner, A. A., Toll-like receptor ligands and atopy: a coin with at least two sides. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2006, 117, 1133- 1140.
29. Geurtsvankessel, C. H. and Lambrecht, B. N., Division of labor between dendritic cell subsets of the lung. Mucosal Immunol., 2008, 1, 442-450.
30. Schroder, N. W. J. et al., Innate immune responses during respiratory tract infection with bacterial pathogen induce allergic airway sensitization. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2008, 122, 595-602.
31. Goriely, S., Neurath, M. F. and Goldman, M., How microorganisms tip the balance between interleukin 12 family members. Nature Rev. Immunol., 2008, 8, 81-86.
32. Eisenbarth, S. C., Lipopolysaccaride enhanced Toll-like receptor 4 dependent T helper cell type 2 responses to inhaled antigen. J. Exp. Med., 2002, 196, 1645-1651.
33. Kuipers, H. et al., Lipopolysaccharide induced suppression of airway Th2 response does not require IL12 production by dendritic cells. J. Immunol., 2003, 171, 3645-3654.
34. Szabo, S. T., Sullivan, B. M., Peng, S. L. and Glimcher, L. H., Molecular mechanisms regulating Th1 immune responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol., 2003, 21, 713-758.
35. Chatila, T. A., Li, N., Garcia-Lloret, M., Kim, H. J. and Nel, A. E., T cell effector pathways in allergic diseases: Trascriptional mechanisms and therapeutic targets. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2008, 121, 812-823.
36. Schnyder-Chandria, S. et al., Interleukin-17 is a negative regulator of established allergic asthma. JEM, 2006, 203, 2715-2725.
37. Schmidt-Weber, C. B., Akdis, M. and Akdis, C. A., Th17 cells in the big picture ofb immunology. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 120, 247-254.
38. Erb, K. J., Atopic disorders a default pathway in the absence of infection? Immunol. Today, 1999, 20, 317-322.
39. Herz, U., Lacy, P., Renz, H. and Erb, K., The influence of infections on the development and severity of allergic disorders. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 2000, 12, 632-640.
40. von Mutius, E., Pearce, N., Beasley, R., Cheng, S., von Ehrenstein, O., Bjorksten, B. and Weiland, S., International patterns of tuberculosis and the prevalence of symptoms of asthma, rhinitis and eczema. Thorax, 2000, 55, 449-453.
41. Shirakawa, T., Enomoto, T., Shimazu, S. and Hopkin, J. M., The inverse association between tuberculin responses and atopic disorders. Science, 1997, 275, 77-79.
42. Alm, J. S., Lilja, G., Pershagen, G. and Scheynius, A., BCG vaccination does not seem to prevent atopy in children with atopic hereditary. Allergy, 1998, 53, 537.
43. Strannegard, I. L., Larsson, L. O., Wennergren, G. and Strannegard, O., Prevalence of allergy in children in relation to prior BCG vaccination and infection with atypical mycobacteria. Allergy, 1998, 53, 249-254.
44. Aaby, P. et al., Early BCG vaccination and reduction in atopy in Guinea-Bissau. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 2000, 30, 644-650.
45. Hayglass, K. T., Lissitsyn, Y., Kozyrski, A. and Becker, A. B., Ethnicity plays a role in different human toll-like receptor responses. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 119, 3147-3148.
46. Herz, U., Gerhold, K., Gruber, C., Braun, A., Wahn, U., Renz, H. and Paul, K., BCG infection suppresses allergic sensitization and development of increased airway reactivity in an animal model. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 1998, 102, 867-874.
47. Zuany-Amorim, C. et al., Suppression of airway eosinophilia by killed Mycobacterium vaccae induced allergen specific regulatory T cells. Nature Med., 2002, 8, 625-629.
48. Abou-Zeid, C. et al., Induction of a type I immune response to a recombinant antigen from Mycobacterium tuberculosis expressed in Mycobacterium vaccae. Infect. Immunol., 1997, 65, 1856- 1862.
49. Wang, C. C. and Rook, G. A., Inhibition of an established allergic response to ovalbumin in Balb/C mice by killed Mycobacterium vaccae. Immunology, 1998, 93, 307-313.
50. Linehan, M. F., Frank, T. L., Hazell, M. L., Francis, H. C., Morris, J. A., Baxter, D. N. and Niven, R. M., Is the prevalence of wheeze in children altered by neonatal BCG vaccination? J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 119, 1079-1085.
51. Droste, J. H. J., Wieringa, M. H., Weyler, J. J., Nelen, V. J., Vermeire, P. A. and Van Bever, H. P., Does the use of antibiotics in early childhood increase the risk of asthma and allergic diseases? Clin. Exp. Allergy, 2000, 30, 1547-1553.
52. Wickens, K., Pearce, N., Crane, J. and Beasley, R., Antibiotic use in early childhood and the development of asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 1999, 29, 766-771.
53. McKeever, T. M., Lewis, S. A. and Smith, C., Early exposure to infections and antibiotics and the incidence of allergic diseases, a birth cohort study with the West Midland Practice Research Database. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2002, 109, 43-50.
54. Schroder, N. W. J. et al., Innate immune response during respiratory tract infection with a bacterial pathogen induces allergic airway sensitization. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2008, 122, 595-602.
55. Rhee, C. S. et al., Allergen independent immunostimulatory sequence oligodeoxy nucleotide therapy attenuates experimental allergic rhinitis. Immunology, 2004, 113, 106-113.
56. Klinman, D. M., Immunotherapeutic use of CpG oligo-deoxy nucleotides. Nature Rev., Immunol., 2004, 4, 7-10.
57. Bieli, C. et al. and Parsifal study group. A polymorphism in CD14, modifies the effect of farm milk consumption on allergic diseases and CD4 gene expression. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 120, 1308-1315.
58. Alfven, T. et al., Allergic diseases and atopic sensitization in children related to farming and anthroposophic lifestyle - the PARSIFAL study. Allergy, 2005, 61, 414-421.
59. Braun-Fahrlander, C. et al., Environmental exposure to endotoxin and its relation to asthma in school age children. N. Engl. J. Med., 2002, 347, 869-877.
60. Ege, M. J. et al., Not all farming environments protect against the development of asthma and wheeze in children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 119, 1140-1147.
61. Lauener, R., von Mutius, E. and Braun-Fahrlander, C., Parental farm exposure is related to the expression of receptors of the innate immunity and to atopic sensitization in school age children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2006, 11, 817-823.
62. Liu, A. H., Endotoxin exposure in allergy and asthma: reconciling a paradox. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2002, 109, 379-392.
63. Weiss, S., Eat dirt - The hygiene hypothesis and allergic diseases. N. Engl. J. Med., 2002, 347, 930-931.
64. Martin, A. C. et al., Acute asthma in children: relationship among CD14 and CC16 genotypes, plasma levels and severity. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2006, 172, 617-622.
65. Stern, D. A. et al., Exposure to farming environment has allergen specific protective effect on Th2 depedent isotype switching in response to common inhalants. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 119, 351-358.
66. Mingomataj, E. C., Xhixha, F. and Gjata, E., Helminths can protect themselves against rejection inhibiting hostile respiratory allergy symptoms. Allergy, 2006, 61, 400-406.
67. Semic-Jusufagic, A. and Custovic, S. A., Environmental exposures, genetic predisposition and allergic diseases: one size never fits all. Allergy, 2006, 61, 397-399.
68. Wilson, M. S., Taylor, M. D., Balic, A., Finney, C. A. M., Lasmb, J. R. and Maizels, R. M., Suppression of allergic airways inflammation by helminth induced regulatory T cells. JEM, 2005, 202, 1199-1212.
69. Schnoeller, C. et al., A helminth immunomodulator reduces allergic and inflammatory responses by induction of IL10 producing macrophages. J. Immunol., 2008, 180, 4265-4272.
70. Hunninghake, G. M. et al., Sensitization to Ascaris lumbricoides and severity of childhood asthma in Costa-Rica. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 119, 654-661.
71. Chen, Y. and Blaser, M., Inverse association of Helicobacter pylori with asthma. Arch. Intern. Med., 2007, 167, 821-827.
72. Bjorksten, B., Naaber, P., Sepp, E. and Milkelsaar, M., The intestinal microflora in allergic Estonian and Swedish two year old children. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 1999, 29, 342-346.
73. Adlerberth, I. et al., Gut microflora and development of atopic eczema.in 3 European birth cohorts. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 120, 343-350.
74. Noverr, M. C. and Huffnagle, G. B., The microflora hypothesis of allergic diseases. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 2005, 35, 1511-1520.
75. Kalliomaki, M., Salminen, S., Poussa, T., Arvilommi, H. and Isolauri, E., Probiotics and prevention of atopic diseases: four year follow up of a randomized placebo controlled trial. Lancet, 2003, 361, 1869-1871.
76. Rautava, S., Klliomaki, M. and Isolauri, E., New therapeutic strategy for combating the increasing burden of allergic diseases: probiotics. A nutrition, allergy, mucosal immunology, and intestinal microbiota (NAMI) research group report. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2005, 116, 31-37.
77. Iossifova, Y. Y. et al., House dust (1-3) β-D-glucan and wheezing in infants. Allergy, 2007, 62, 504-513.
78. Yamada, J., Hamuro, J., Hatanaka, H., Hamabata, K. and Kinoshita, S., Alleviation of seasonal allergic symptoms with superfine β-1,3-glucan. A randomized study. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 119, 1119-1126.
79. Shaheen, S. O., Aaby, P., Hall, A. J., Barker, D. J., Heyes, C. B., Shiell, A. W. and Goudiaby, A., Measles and atopy in Guinea- Bissau. Lancet, 1996, 347, 1792-1796.
80. Paunio, M., Heinonen, O. P., Virtanen, M., Leinikki, P., Patja, A. and Peltola, H., Measles history and atopic diseases, a population based cross sectional study. JAMA, 2000, 283, 343-346.
81. Marie, J. C. et al., Mechanism of measles virus induced suppression of inflammatory immune responses. Immunity, 2001, 14, 69-79.
82. Matricardi, P. M., Rosmini, F., Riondino, S., Fortini, M., Ferrigno, L., Repicett, M. and Bonini, S., Exposure to food borne and orofecal microbes versus airborne viruses in relation to atopy and allergic asthma, epidemiological study. BMJ, 2000, 320, 412-417.
83. Stein, R. T. et al., Respiratory syncytial virus in early-life and risk of wheeze and allergy by age 13 years. Lancet, 1999, 354, 541- 545.
84. von Mutius, E., Illi, S., Hirch, T., Leupold, W., Keeil, V. G. and Weiland, S., Frequency of infections in the first years of life and risk of asthma, atopy and airway hyperresponsiveness among school age children. Eur. Respir. J., 1999, 14, 4-11.
85. Everard Mark, L., The relationship between respiratory syncytial virus infection and the development of wheezing in children. Mechanism of allergy and adult asthma. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2006, 6, 56-61.
86. Anderson, H. R., Epidemiological and allergic features of asthma in New Guinea highlands. Clin. Allergy, 1974, 4, 171-183.
87. Juntii, H., Kakkonen, J., Dunder, T., Renko, M., Niinimaki, A. and Uhari, M., Association of an early respiratory syncytial virus infection and atopic allergy. Allergy, 2003, 58, 878.
88. Sigurs, N., Bjarmason, R., Sigurbergsson, F., Kjellman, B. and Bjorksten, B., Asthma and immunoglobulin E antibodies after respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis, a prospective cohort study with matched controls. Pediatrics, 1995, 95, 500-505.
89. Micillo, E., Bianco, A., Auria, D. D. and Mazzarella, G., Respiratory infections and asthma. Allergy, 2000, 55, 42-45.
90. Kusel, M. M. H., deKlerk, N. H., Kebadze, T., Vohma, V., Holt, P. G., Johnston, S. L. and Sly, P. D., Early life respiratory viral infection, atopic sensitization and risk of subsequent development of persistant asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 119, 1105- 1110.
91. Dahl, M. E., Dabbagh, K., Liggett, D., Kim, S. and Lewis, D. B., Viral-induced T helper type 1 responses enhance allergic diseases by effects on dendritic cells. Nature Immunol., 2004, 5, 337-343.
92. Schaller, M., Hogaboam, C. M., Lukas, N. and Kunkel, S. L., Respiratory viral infections drive chemokine expression and exacerbate the asthmatic response. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2006, 118, 295-302.
93. Schaub, B., Lauener, R. and von Mutius, E. J., The many faces of hygiene hypothesis - Infections as intermediary of the hygiene hypothesis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2006, 117, 969-977.
94. Celedon, J. C., Wright, R. J., Litonjua, A., Sredl, D., Ryan, L., Weiss, S. T. and Gold, D. R., Day care attendance in early-life, maternal history of asthma and asthma at the age of 6 years. Am. J. Crit. Care Med., 2003, 167, 1239-1243.
95. Henderson, J. et al., Hospitalization for RSV bronchitis before 12 months of age and subsequent asthma, atopy and wheeze: A longitudinal birth cohort study. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol., 2005, 16, 386-392.
96. Umetsu, D., Flu strikes the hygiene hypothesis. Nature Med., 2004, 10, 232-234.
97. Bloomfield, S. F., Stanwell-Smith, R., Crevel, R. W. R. and Pickup, J., Too clean, or not too clean: the hygiene hypothesis and home hygiene. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 2006, 36, 402-425.