Altruism born of suffering and prosocial behavior following adverse life events: A review and conceptualization

Social Justice Research

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 53-97

  Vollhardt, Johanna Ray ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS   (United States)

Author keywords

Altruism; Collective violence; Intergroup relations; Prosocial behavior; Suffering

Indexed keywords

EID: 69949112771     PISSN: 08857466     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11211-009-0088-1     Document Type: Article

References (192)

1. Alexander, J., Eyerman, R., Giesen, B., Smelser, N., & Sztompka, P. (2004). Cultural trauma and collective identity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2. Almedom, A. (2005). Resilience, hardiness, sense of coherence, and posttraumatic growth: All paths leading to light at the end of the tunnel? Journal of Loss and Trauma,10, 253-265.
3. Anooshian, L. (2005). Violence and aggression in the lives of homeless children: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior,10, 129-152.
4. Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health. How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
5. Bandura, A., Vittorio Caprara, G., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., & Regalia, C. (2001). Sociocognitive self-regulatory mechanisms governing transgressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,80, 125-135.
6. Barnett, M., Tetreault, P., Esper, J., & Bristow, A. (1986). Similarity and empathy: The experience of rape. Journal of Social Psychology,126, 47-49.
7. Barnett, M., Tetreault, P., & Masbad, I. (1987). Empathy with a rape victim: The role of similarity of experience. Violence and Victims,2, 255-262.
8. Bar-Tal, D. (2000). Shared beliefs in a society. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
9. Batson, C. (1979). Helping under conditions of common threat: Increased we-feeling or ensuring reciprocity. Social Psychology Quarterly,42, 410-414.
10. Batson, C. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
11. Batson, C. (2002). Addressing the altruism question experimentally. In S. Post, L. Underwood, J. Schloss, & W. Hurlbut (Eds.), Altruism and altruistic love: Science, philosophy, and religion in dialogue (pp. 89-105). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
12. Batson, C., & Oleson, K. (1991). Current status of the empathy-altruism hypothesis. In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Prosocial behavior (pp. 62-85). Newbury Park: Sage.
13. Baumeister, R. F., & Bratslavsky, E. (2000). Victim thinking. In J. H. Harvey & E. D. Miller (Eds.), Loss and trauma: General and close relationship perspectives (pp. 86-101). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
14. Begic, D., & Jokic-Begic, N. (2002). Violent behaviour and post-traumatic stress disorder. Current Opinion in Psychiatry,15, 623-626.
15. Benson, M., Wooldredge, J., Thistlethwaite, A., & Fox, G. L. (2004). The correlation between race and domestic violence is confounded with community context. Social Problems,51, 326-342.
16. Benson, P., Karabenick, S., & Lerner, R. (1976). Pretty pleases: The effects of physical attractiveness, race, and sex on receiving help. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,12, 409-415.
17. Berkowitz, L., & Daniels, L. (1964). Affecting the salience of the social responsibility norm: Effects of past help on the response to dependency relationships. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,68, 275-281.
18. Black, D., Heyman, R., & Slep, A. (2001). Risk factors for child physical abuse. Aggression and Violent Behavior,6, 121-188.
19. Blake, J. (1978). Death by hand grenade: Altruistic suicide in combat. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior,8, 46-59.
20. Bloom, S. (1998). By the crowd they have been broken, by the crowd they shall be healed: The social transformation of trauma. In R. Tedeschi, C. Park, & L. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 179-213). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
21. Bonanno, G. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human ability to thrive after extremely adverse events? American Psychologist,59, 20-28.
22. Bonanno, G., Galea, S., Bucchiarelli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2006). Psychological resilience after disaster: New York City in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attack. Psychological Science,17, 181-186.
23. Bonanno, G. A., & Jost, J. (2006). Conservative shift among high-exposure survivors of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Basic and Applied Social Psychology,28, 311-323.
24. Borshuk, C. (2004). An interpretive investigation into motivations for outgroup activism (electronic version). The Qualitative Report, 9, 300-319. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR9-2/borshuk.pdf. Retrieved 4 Feb 2006.
25. Briere, J., & Elliott, D. (2000). Prevalence, characteristics and long-term sequelae of natural disaster exposure in the general population. Journal of Traumatic Stress,13, 661-679.
26. Brodkin, K. (2003). On the politics of being Jewish in a multiracial state. Anthropologica, 45, 59-68.
27. Brown, S., Brown, M., House, J., & Smith, D. (2008). Coping with spousal loss: Potential buffering effects of self-reported helping behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,34, 849-861.
28. Bryant-Davis, T., & Ocamo, C. (2005). Racist incident-based trauma. The Counseling Psychologist,33, 479-500.
29. Campbell, D. T. (1958). Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregates of persons as social entities. Behavioral Science,3, 14-25.
30. Canale, J., & Beckley, S. (1999). Promoting altruism in trouble youth: Considerations and suggestions. North American Journal of Psychology,1, 95-102.
31. Carlson, M., & Miller, N. (1987). Explanation of the relation between negative mood and helping. Psychological Bulletin,102, 91-108.
32. Castano, E., Yzerbyt, V., & Bourguignon, D. (2003). We are one and I like it: The impact of ingroup entitativity on ingroup identification. European Journal of Social Psychology,33, 735-754.
33. Charney, D. (2004). Psychobiological mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability: Implications for successful adaptation to extreme stress. American Journal of Psychology,161, 195-216.
34. Cialdini, R., Darby, B., & Vincent, J. (1973). Transgression and altruism: A case for hedonism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,9, 502-516.
35. Cialdini, R., Schaller, M., Houlihan, D., & Arps, K. (1987). Empathy-based helping: Is it selflessly or selfishly motivated? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,52, 749-758.
36. Clary, E., & Snyder, M. (1999). The motivations to volunteer: Theoretical and practical considerations. Current Directions in Psychological Science,8, 156-159.
37. Coles, R. (2000). The political life of children. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press.
38. Davis, M. (1994). Empathy: A social psychological approach. Boulder: Westview.
39. Dekel, R., & Hobfoll, S. (2007). The impact of resource loss on Holocaust survivors facing war and terrorism in Israel. Aging & Mental Health,11, 159-167.
40. DePalma, M., Madey, S., Tillman, T., & Wheeler, J. (1999). Perceived patient responsibility and belief in a just world affect helping. Basic and Applied Social Psychology,21, 131-137.
41. Dodge, K., Bates, J., & Pettit, G. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science,250, 1678-1683.
42. Doise, W. (1986). Levels of explanation in social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
43. Dovidio, J. (1984). Helping behavior and altruism: An empirical and conceptual overview. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 361-427). San Diego: Academic Press.
44. Dovidio, J., Gaertner, S., Validzic, A., & Matoka, K. (1997). Extending the benefits of recategorization: Evaluations, self-disclosure, and helping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,33, 401-420.
45. Dovidio, J., & Morris, W. (1975). Effects of stress and commonality of fate on helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,31, 145-149.
46. Eccles, J., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology,53, 109-132.
47. Eisenberg, N. (1992). The caring child. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
48. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R., Miller, P., & Fultz, J. (1989). Relation of sympathy and personal distress to prosocial behavior: A multimethod study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,57, 55-66.
49. Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin,101, 91-119.
50. Epley, N., Keysar, B., van Boven, L., & Gilovich, T. (2004). Perspective taking as egocentric anchoring and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,87, 327-339.
51. Eranen, L., & Liebkind, K. (1993). Coping with disaster: The helping behavior of communities and individuals. In J. P. Wilson & B. Raphael (Eds.), International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes (pp. 957-964). New York: Plenum Press.
52. Errante, A. (1997). Close to home: Comparative perspectives on childhood and community violence. American Journal of Education,105, 355-400.
53. Fabes, R., Eisenberg, N., & Eisenbud, L. (1993). Behavioral and physiological correlates of children's reactions to others in distress. Developmental Psychology,29, 655-663.
54. Flippen, A., Hornstein, H., Siegal, W., & Weitzman, E. (1996). A comparison of similarity and interdependence as triggers for in-group formation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,22, 882-893.
55. Frankl, V. (1984). Man's search for meaning (originally published in 1958). New York: Pocket/Simon and Shuster.
56. Franz, C., & McClelland, D. (1994). Lives of women and men active in the social protests of the 1960s: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,66, 196-205.
57. Gaertner, S., & Dovidio, J. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
58. Gallimore, T. (2004). Unresolved trauma: Fuel for the cycle of violence and terrorism. In C. Stout (Ed.), Psychology of terrorism: Coping with the continuing threat, condensed edition (pp. 67-93). New York: Praeger.
59. Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research,6, 167-191.
60. Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). Children in danger: Coping with the consequences of community violence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
61. Garbarino, J., Kostelny, K., & Dubrow, N. (1991). What children can tell us about living in danger. American Psychologist,46, 376-383.
62. Gibson, J. (2004). Overcoming apartheid. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
63. Gillen, G. (2005). Positive consequences of surviving a stroke. American Journal of Occupational Therapy,59, 346-350.
64. Goenjian, A., Molina, L., Steinberg, A., Fairbanks, L., Alvarez, M., Goenjian, H., et al. (2001). Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among Nicaraguan adolescents after Hurricane Mitch. American Journal of Psychiatry,158, 788-794.
65. Gouldner, A. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review,25, 161-178.
66. Grossman, F., Sorsoli, L., & Kia-Keating, M. (2006). A gale force wind: Meaning making by male survivors of childhood sexual abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,76, 434-443.
67. Grusec, J. (1991). The socialization of altruism. In M. Clark (Ed.), Prosocial behavior (pp. 9-33). Newbury Park: Sage.
68. Gurr, T. R. (1993). Why minorities rebel: A global analysis of communal mobilization and conflict since 1945. International Political Science Review,14, 161-201.
69. Haaretz. (2007a, January 2). Our obligation to refugees, as refugees (Editorial). http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/807834.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
70. Haaretz. (2007b, September 7). Israel to grant citizenship to hundreds of Darfur refugees. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/901138.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
71. Hafez, M. (2006). Rationality, culture, and structure in the making of suicide bombers: A preliminary theoretical synthesis and illustrative case study. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism,29, 165-185.
72. Hannah, M., & Midlarsky, E. (2005). Helping by siblings of children with mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Retardation,110, 87-99.
73. Heggenhougen, K. (1999). Are the marginalized the slag-heap of economic growth and globalization? Disparity, health, and human rights. Health and Human Rights,4, 205-213.
74. Helgeson, V., Reynolds, K., & Tomich, P. (2006). A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,74, 797-816.
75. Hermansen-Kobulnicky, C. (2008). Measurement of self-advocacy in cancer patients and survivors. Supportive Care in Cancer,16, 613-618.
76. Hernandez, M. (2001). A personal dimension of human rights activism: Narratives of trauma, resilience and solidarity. Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61 (7-B), 3846.
77. Hernandez, P. (2002). Resilience in families and communities: Latin American contributions from the psychology of liberation. The Family Journal,10, 334-343.
78. Hobfoll, S. (1991). Traumatic stress: A theory based on rapid loss of resources. Anxiety Research,4, 187-197.
79. Høivik, T. (1977). The demography of structural violence. Journal of Peace Research,14, 59-73.
80. Horowitz, A. V., Widom, C. S., McLaughlin, J., & White, H. R. (2001). The impact of childhood abuse and neglect on adult mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior,42, 184-201.
81. Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.
82. Johnson, D. R., Feldman, S., Southwick, S., & Charney, L. (1991). The concept of the second generation trauma program in the treatment of PTSD among Vietnam veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress,8, 283-299.
83. Jonas, E., Schimel, J., Greenberg, J., & Pyszcynski, T. (2002). The Scrooge effect: Evidence that mortality salience increase prosocial attitudes and behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,28, 1342-1353.
84. Kahana, B., Harel, Z., & Kahana, E. (1988). Predictors of psychological well-being among survivors of the Holocaust. In J. Wilson, H. Harel, & B. Kahana (Eds.), Human adaptation to extreme stress: From the Holocaust to Vietnam (pp. 171-192). New York: Plenum.
85. Kahana, B., Kahana, E., Harel, Z., & Segal, M. (1985). The victim as helper: Prosocial behavior during the Holocaust. Humboldt Journal of Social Relations,13, 357-373.
86. Kaiser, C., Vick, S., & Major, M. (2004). A prospective investigation of the relationship between just-world beliefs and the desire for revenge after September 11, 2001. Psychological Science,15, 503-506.
87. Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. (1995a). In search of altruistic community: Patterns of social support mobilization following Hurricane Hugo. American Journal of Community Psychology,23, 447-477.
88. Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. (1995b). Mobilization and deterioration of social support following natural disasters. Current Directions in Psychological Science,4, 94-98.
89. Karam, E., & Bou Ghosn, M. (2003). Psychosocial consequences of war among civilian populations. Current Opinion in Psychiatry,16, 413-419.
90. Kay, A. (1998). Generativity in the shadow of genocide: The Holocaust experience and generativity. In D. McAdams & E. de St. Aubin (Eds.), Generativity and adult development (pp. 335-359). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
91. Kishon-Barash, R., Midlarsky, E., & Johnson, D. R. (1999). Altruism and the Vietnam War veteran: The relationship of helping to symptomatology. Journal of Traumatic Stress,12, 655-662.
92. Kleinman, S. (1989). A terrorist hijacking: Victims' experiences initially and 9 years later. Journal of Traumatic Stress,2, 49-58.
93. Kobasa, S. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,37, 1-11.
94. Koole, S. L. (2004). Volitional shielding of the self: Effects of action orientation and external demands on impact self-evaluation. Social Cognition,22, 100-125.
95. Koole, S. L., & Jostmann, N. B. (2004). Getting a grip on your feelings: Effect of action orientation and external demands on intuitive affect regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,87, 974-990.
96. Krebs, D. (1975). Empathy and altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,32, 1134-1146.
97. Kuhl, J. (1981). Motivational and functional helplessness: The moderating effect of state versus action orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,40, 155-170.
98. Kuhl, J. (1987). Action control: The maintenance of motivational states. In F. Halisch & J. Kuhl (Eds.), Motivation, intention, and volition (pp. 279-291). New York: Springer.
99. Lavik, N., Hauff, E., Skrondal, A., & Solberg, O. (1996). Mental disorder among refugees and the impact of persecution and exile: Some findings from an out-patient population. British Journal of Psychology,169, 726-732.
100. Leaning, J., & Briton, N. (2004, May). Altruism and compassion in war. Paper presented at the Compassionate Love Research Conference of the Institute for Research on Unlimited Love and the Fetzer Institute, Washington, DC.
101. Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., Smith, L., & Phillips, S. (2003). Teasing, rejection, and violence: Case studies of the school shootings. Aggressive Behavior,29, 202-214.
102. Lerner, J., Gonzalez, R., Small, D., & Fischhoff, B. (2003). Effects of fear and anger on perceived risks of terrorism: A national field experiment. Psychological Science,14, 144-150.
103. Lerner, M. J., & Miller, D. T. (1978). Just world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead. Psychological Bulletin,85, 1030-1051.
104. Levine, M., Prosser, A., Evans, D., & Reicher, S. (2005). Identity and emergency intervention: How social group membership and inclusiveness of group boundaries shape helping behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,31, 443-453.
105. Levine, M., & Thompson, K. (2004). Identity, place, and bystander intervention: Social categories and helping after natural disasters. Journal of Social Psychology,144, 229-245.
106. Levy, S., Freitas, A., & Salovey, P. (2002). Construing action abstractly and blurring social distinctions: Implications for perceiving homogeneity among, but also empathizing with and helping others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,83, 1224-1238.
107. Lickel, B., Miller, N., Stenstrom, D. M., Denson, T., & Schmader, T. (2006). Vicarious retribution: The role of collective blame in intergroup aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review,10, 372-390.
108. Lifton, R. (1967). Death in life, survivors of Hiroshima. New York: Vintage.
109. Lifton, R. (2003). Super power syndrome: America's apocalyptic confrontation with the world. New York: Nation Books.
110. Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S. (2004). Positive change following trauma and adversity: A review. Journal of Traumatic Stress,17, 11-21.
111. London, P. (1970). The rescuers: Motivational hypotheses about Christians who saved Jews from the Nazis. In J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior (pp. 241-250). New York: Academic Press.
112. Lopes Cardozo, B., Bilukha, O., Gotway Crawford, C., Shaikh, I., Wolfe, M., Gerber, M., et al. (2004). Mental health, social functioning, and disability in postwar Afghanistan. Journal of the American Medical Association,292, 575-584.
113. Macksoud, M., & Aber, J. (1996). The war experiences and psychosocial development of children in Lebanon. Child Development,67, 70-88.
114. Magen, R., & Glajchen, M. (1999). Cancer support groups: Client outcome and the context of group process. Research on Social Work Practice,9, 541-554.
115. Marsh, J. (2004). In search of the moral voice. What makes some people display altruism and compassion in the midst of war? (electronic version). Greater Good, 1, 22-25. http://peacecenter.berkeley.edu/compassion_war_spring04.pdf. Accessed July 2007.
116. Martín-Baró, I. (1994). Writings for a liberation psychology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
117. McAdams, D., & de St. Aubin, E. (Eds.). (1998). Generativity and adult development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
118. McHale, S., & Gamble, W. (1989). Sibling relationships of children with disabled and nondisabled brothers and sisters. Developmental Psychology,25, 421-429.
119. McMillen, J., & Cook, C. (2003). The positive by-products of spinal cord injury and their correlates. Rehabilitation Psychology,48, 77-85.
120. McMillen, J., & Fisher, R. (1998). The perceived benefit scales: Measuring perceived positive life changes after negative events. Social Work Research,22, 173-186.
121. Messinger, R. (2004, July 12). Genocide by any other name is still genocide: Crisis in Darfur, Sudan. American Jewish World Service.http://www.ajws.org/index.cfm?section_id=8andsub_section_id=14andpage_id=265. Retrieved 30 Apr 2007.
122. Midlarsky, E. (1991). Helping as coping. In M. Clark (Ed.), Prosocial behavior (pp. 238-264). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
123. Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., Gillath, O., & Nitzberg, R. A. (2005). Attachment, caregiving, and altruism: Boosting attachment security increases compassion and helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,89, 817-839.
124. Millar, M., Millar, K., & Tesser, A. (1988). The effects of helping and focus of attention on mood states. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,14, 536-543.
125. Miller, A. M., & Heldring, M. (2004). Mental health and primary care in a time of terrorism: Psychological impact of terrorist attacks. Families, Systems, and Health,22, 7-30.
126. Moerk, E. (2002). Scripting war-entry to make it appear unavoidable. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology,8, 229-242.
127. Mollica, R. (2004). Surviving torture. New England Journal of Medicine,351, 5-7.
128. Mollica, R., Cui, X., McInnes, K., & Massagli, M. (2002). Science-based policy for psychosocial interventions in refugee camps: A Cambodian example. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,190, 158-166.
129. Mussen, P., & Eisenberg, N. (2001). Prosocial development in context. In A. Bohart & D. Stipek (Eds.), Constructive and destructive behavior: Implications for family, school, and society (pp. 103-126). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
130. Nadler, A. (2002). Intergroup helping relations as power relations: Maintaining or challenging social dominance between groups through helping. Journal of Social Issues,58, 487-502.
131. Napier, J., Mandisodza, A., Anderson, S., & Jost, J. (2006). System justification to the poor and displaced in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy,6, 57-73.
132. Norris, F., Baker, C., Murphy, A., & Kaniasty, K. (2005). Social support mobilization and deterioration after Mexico's 1999 flood: Effects of context, gender, and time. American Journal of Community Psychology,36, 15-28.
133. Norris, F., Friedman, M., Watson, P., Byrne, C., Diaz, E., & Kaniasty, K. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001. Psychiatry,65, 207-239.
134. Oliner, S., & Oliner, P. (1988). The altruistic personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe. New York: Free Press.
135. Orth, U., Montada, L., & Maercker, A. (2006). Feelings of revenge, retaliation motive, and posttraumatic stress reactions in crime victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,21, 229-243.
136. Park, C. L. (1998). Stress-related growth and thriving through coping: The roles of personality and cognitive processes. Journal of Social Issues,54, 267-277.
137. Penner, L., Dovidio, J., Piliavin, J., & Schroeder, D. (2005). Prosocial behavior: Multilevel perspectives. Annual Review of Psychology,56, 365-392.
138. Peterson, R. D., & Krivo, L. J. (1999). Racial segregation, the concentration of disadvantage, and Black and White homicide victimization. Social Forces,14, 465-493.
139. Pick, M. (2001). The myth of trauma/the trauma of myth: Myths as mediators of some long-term effects of war-trauma. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology,7, 201-226.
140. Piferi, R., Jobe, R., & Jones, W. (2006). Giving to others during national tragedy: The effects of altruistic and egoistic motivations on long-term giving. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships,23, 171-184.
141. Piliavin, J., & Callero, P. (1991). Giving blood: The development of an altruistic identity. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
142. Pyszcynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (2002). In the wake of 9/11: The psychology of terror. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
143. Raboteg-Šaric, Z., Žužul, M., & Keresteš, G. (1994). War and children's aggressive and prosocial behaviour. European Journal of Personality,8, 210-212.
144. Rachman, S. (1979). The concept of required helpfulness. Behaviour Research and Therapy,17, 1-6.
145. Ramanathapillai, R. (2006). The politicizing of trauma: A case study of Sri Lanka. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology,12, 1-18.
146. Reeves, P., Merriam, S., & Courtnenay, B. (1999). Adaptation to HIV infection: The development of coping strategies over time. Qualitative Health Research,9, 324-331.
147. Reiter-Purtill, J., Vannatta, K., Gerhardt, C., Correll, J., & Noll, R. (2003). A controlled longitudinal study of the social functioning of children who completed treatment of cancer. Journal of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology,25, 467-473.
148. Rice, C., & Benson, J. (2005). Hungering for revenge: The Irish famine, the troubles and shame-rage cycles, and their role in group therapy in Northern Ireland. Group Analysis,38, 219-235.
149. Roberts, G., Williams, G., Lawrence, J., & Raphael, B. (1998). How does domestic violence affect women's mental health? Women & Health,28, 117-129.
150. Salovey, P., Mayer, J., & Rosenhan, D. (1991). Mood and helping: Mood as a motivation for helping and helping as a regulator of mood. In M. Clark (Ed.), Review of personality and psychology, vol. 12: Prosocial behavior (pp. 215-237). Newbury Park: Sage.
151. Schroeder, D., Penner, L., Dovidio, J., & Piliavin, J. (1995). The psychology of helping and altruism: Problems and puzzles. New York: McGraw-Hill.
152. Schumacher, J., Feldbau-Kohn, S., Slep, A., & Heyman, R. (2001). Risk factors for male-to-female partner physical abuse. Aggression and Violent Behavior,6, 281-352.
153. Schuster, M., Stein, B., Jaycox, L., Collins, R., Marshall, G., Elliott, M., et al. (2001). A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine,345, 1507-1512.
154. Seagle, H., Jessee, P., & Nagy, M. (2002). Altruism: Choices of healthy and chronically ill children. Early Child Development and Care,172, 573-583.
155. Serotta, E. (1994). Survival in Sarajevo. How a Jewish Community came to the aid of its city. Vienna: Brandstaedtter.
156. Shakespeare-Finch, J., & Copping, A. (2006). A grounded theory approach to understanding cultural differences in posttraumatic growth. Journal of Loss and Trauma,11, 355-371.
157. Skitka, L., Bauman, C., & Mullen, E. (2004). Psychological tolerance and coming to psychological closure following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks: An integrative approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,30, 743-756.
158. Sole, K., Marton, J., & Hornstein, H. (1975). Opinion similarity and helping: Three field experiments investigating the bases of promotive tension. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,11, 1-13.
159. Southwick, S., Vythilingam, M., & Charney, D. (2005). The psychobiology of depression and resilience to stress: Implications for prevention and treatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology,1, 255-291.
160. Springer, K. W., Sheridan, J., Kuo, D., & Carnes, M. (2003). The long-term health outcomes of childhood abuse. An overview and a call to action. Journal of General Internal Medicine,18, 864-870.
161. Stangor, C., & Jost, J. (1997). Commentary: Individual, group and system levels of analysis and their relevance for stereotyping and intergroup relations. In R. Spears, P. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life (pp. 336-358). Malden: Blackwell.
162. Staub, E. (1979). Positive social behavior and morality: II. Socialization and development. New York: Academic Press.
163. Staub, E. (1998). Breaking the cycle of genocidal violence: Healing and reconciliation. In J. Harvey (Ed.), Perspectives on loss (pp. 231-241). Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis.
164. Staub, E. (2003). The psychology of good and evil: Why children, adults, and groups help and harm others. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
165. Staub, E. (2004). Basic human needs, altruism, and aggression. In A. G. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology of good and evil (pp. 51-84). New York: Guilford.
166. Staub, E. (2005). The roots of goodness: The fulfillment of basic human needs and the development of caring, helping and nonaggression, inclusive caring, moral courage, active bystandership, and altruism born of suffering. In G. Carlo & C. Edwards (Eds.), Moral motivation through the life span (pp. 33-72). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
167. Staub, E., & Pearlman, L. (2006). Advancing healing and reconciliation. In L. Barbanel & R. Sternberg (Eds.), Psychological interventions in times of crisis (pp. 213-243). New York: Springer.
168. Staub, E. & Vollhardt, J. (2008). Altruism born of suffering: The roots of caring and helping after victimization and other trauma. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78, 267-280.
169. Stürmer, S., Snyder, M., Kropp, A., & Siem, B. (2006). Empathy-motivated helping: The moderating role of group membership. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,32, 943-956.
170. Stürmer, S., Snyder, M., & Omoto, A. (2005). Prosocial emotions and helping: The moderating role of group membership. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,88, 532-546.
171. Suedfeld, P. (1997). The social psychology of invictus: Conceptual and methodological approaches to indomitability. In C. McGarty & S. Haslam (Eds.), The message of social psychology: Perspectives on mind in society (pp. 328-341). Oxford: Blackwell.
172. Suedfeld, P., Soriaono, E., McMurty, D., Paterson, H., Weiszbeck, T., & Krell, R. (2005). Erikson's components of a healthy personality among Holocaust survivors immediately and 40 years after the war. International Journal of Aging and Human Development,60, 229-248.
173. Tedeschi, R. (1999). Violence transformed: Posttraumatic growth in survivors and their societies. Aggression and Violent Behavior,4, 319-341.
174. Tedeschi, R., Park, C., & Calhoun, L. (1998). Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
175. Thomas, S. (2003). None of us will ever be the same again: Reactions of American midlife women to 9/11. Health Care for Women International,24, 853-867.
176. Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review,110, 403-421.
177. Turner, J. C. (1987). A self-categorization theory. In J. Turner, M. Hogg, P. Oakes, S. Reicher, & M. Wetherell (Eds.), Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory (pp. 42-67). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
178. Twenge, J., Baumeister, R., Tice, D., & Stucke, T. (2001). If you can't join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,81, 1058-1069.
179. Unger, R. (2000). The 1999 SPSSI presidential address: Outsiders inside: Positive marginality and social change. Journal of Social Issues,56, 163-179.
180. Ursano, R., McCaughey, B., & Fullerton, C. (1994). Individual and community responses to trauma and disaster: The structure of human chaos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
181. Valois, R., MacDonald, J., Bretous, L., Fischer, M., & Drane, J. (2002). Risk factors and behaviors associated with adolescent violence and aggression. American Journal of Health Behavior,26, 454-464.
182. Vazquez, C., Perez-Sales, P., & Hervas, G. (2008). Positive effects of terrorism and posttraumatic growth: An individual and community perspective. In S. Joseph & P. A. Linley (Eds.), Trauma, recovery, and growth (pp. 63-91). Hoboken: Wiley.
183. Volpato, C., & Contarello, A. (1999). Towards a social psychology of extreme situations: Primo Levi's If This is a Man and social identity theory. European Journal of Social Psychology,29, 239-258.
184. Wakslak, C., Jost, J., Tyler, T., & Chen, E. (2007). Moral outrage mediates the dampening effect of system justification on support for redistributive social policies. Psychological Science,18, 267-274.
185. Wayment, H. (2004). It could have been me: Vicarious victims and disaster-focused distress. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,30, 515-528.
186. Weiss, N. (1997). Long-distance runners of the Civil Rights Movement: The contributions of Jews to the NAACP and the National Urban League in the early twentieth century. In J. Salzman & C. West (Eds.), Struggles in the promised land. Toward a history of Black-Jewish relations in the United States (pp. 123-152). New York: Oxford University Press.
187. Westmaas, J., & Silver, R. (2006). The role of perceived similarity in supportive responses to victims of negative life events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,32, 1537-1546.
188. Whiffen, V., & MacIntosh, H. (2005). Mediators of the link between childhood sexual abuse and emotional distress: A critical review. Trauma, Violence & Abuse,6, 24-39.
189. WHO. (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
190. Wilke, H., & Lanzetta, J. (1970). The obligation to help: The effects of amount of prior help on subsequent helping behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,6, 488-493.
191. Yum, Y., & Schenck-Hamlin, W. (2005). Reactions to 9/11 as a function of terror management and perspective taking. Journal of Social Psychology,145, 265-286.
192. Zoellner, T., & Maercker, A. (2006). Posttraumatic growth in clinical psychology-A critical review and introduction of a two component model. Clinical Psychology Review,26, 626-653.