Violence transformed: Posttraumatic growth in survivors and their societies

Aggression and Violent Behavior

Volumn 4, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 319-341

  Tedeschi, Richard G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA AT CHARLOTTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Posttraumatic growth; Survivors; Violence

Indexed keywords

COPING BEHAVIOR; EXPERIENCE; HUMAN; IDENTITY; JUSTICE; LIFE EVENT; PHILOSOPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOTRAUMA; REVIEW; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIETY; SOCIOLOGY; VICTIM; VIOLENCE;

EID: 0032981260     PISSN: 13591789     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1359-1789(98)00005-6     Document Type: Review

References (194)

1. Abbott D.A., Meredith W.H. Strengths of parents with retarded children. Family Relations. 35:1986;371-375.
2. Abrahamson L.Y., Metalsky G.I., Alloy L.B. Hopelessness depression. A theory-based subtype of depression Psychological Review. 96:1989;358-372.
3. Affleck G., Tennen H. Construing benefits from adversity. Adaptational significance and dispositional underpinnings Journal of Personality. 64:1996;899-922.
4. Affleck G., Tennen H., Gershman K. Cognitive adaptations to high-risk infants. The search for mastery, meaning, and protection from future harm American Journal of Mental Deficiency. 89:1985;653-656.
5. Albert R.S. Genius and eminence. 1983;Pergamon Press, New York.
6. Aldwin C.M. Stress, coping, and development. 1994;Guilford Press, New York.
7. Aldwin C.M., Levenson M.R., Spiro A. Vulnerability and resilience to combat exposure. Can stress have life-long effects? Psychology and Aging. 9:1994;34-44.
8. Alvaro, C., & McFarland, C. (1997). Victims' self-improvement perceptions: Enhancing the present of derogating the past? Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Chicago.
9. Andreasen N.L., Norris A.S. Long-term adjustment and adaptation mechanisms in severely burned adults. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 154:1972;352-362.
10. Andrykowski, M. A. (1992). Positive psychosocial adjustment among cancer survivors. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
11. Arbuckle N., de Vries B. The long-term effects of later life spousal and parental bereavement on personal functioning. The Gerontologist. 35:1995;637-647.
12. Baltes P.B., Staudinger U.M., Maercker A., Smith J. People nominated as wise. A comparative study of wisdom-related knowledge Psychology and Aging. 10:1995;155-166.
13. Batson C.D., Schoenrade P., Ventis W.L. Religion and the individual. A social-psychological perspective:1993;Oxford University Press, New York.
14. Bat-Zion N., Levy-Shiff R. Children in war. Stress and coping reactions under the threat of scud missle atacks and the effect of proximity Leavitt L.A., Fox N.A. The psychological effects of war and violence on children. 1993;143-161 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
15. Baumeister R.F. Meanings of life. 1991;Guilford Press, New York.
16. Beardslee W.R. The role of self-dunderstanding in resilient individuals. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 59:1989;266-278.
17. Becker D. The deficiency of the concept of posttraumatic stress disorder when dealing with victims of human rights violations. Kleber R.J., Figley C.R., Gersons B.P.R. Beyond trauma. Cultural and societal dynamics:1995;99-110 Plenum Press, New York.
18. Berger L. The long-term psychological consequences of the Holocaust on the survivors and their offspring. Braham R.L. The psychological perspectives of the Holocaust and of its aftermath. 1988;175-221 Columbia University Press, New York.
19. Berman S.L., Kurtines W.M., Silverman W.K., Serafini L.T. The impact of exposure to crime and violence on urban youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 66:1996;329-336.
20. Birren J.E., Fisher L.M. The elements of wisdom. Overview and integration Sternberg R.J. Wisdom. Its nature, origins, and development:1990;317-332 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
21. Bit S. The warrior heritage. A psychological perspective of Cambodian trauma:1991;Author, Hayward, CA.
22. Bloom S.L. By the crowd they have been broken, by the crowd they shall be healed. The social transformation of trauma Tedeschi R.G., Park C.L., Calhoun L.G. Posttraumatic growth. Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis:1998;179-213 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
23. Borysenko J. Fire in the soul. A new psychology of spiritual optimism:1993;Warner Books, New York.
24. Brende J.O., Parson E.R. Vietnam veterans. The road to recovery:1985;Plenum Press, New York.
25. Brendler, A. K. (1995). Working through the Holocaust; Still a task for Germany's youth? In R. J. Kleber, C. R. Figley, & B. P. R. Gersons (Eds.), Beyond trauma: Cultural and societal dynamics (pp. 249-275). New York: Plenum Press.
26. Brewin C.R. Attributions for industrial accidents. Their relationship to rehabilitation outcome Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 2:1984;156-164.
27. Burt M.R., Katz B.L. Dimensions of recovery from rape. Focus on growth outcomes Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2:1987;57-81.
28. Calhoun, L. G. (1996). Posttraumatic growth: A functional descriptive model. In R. G. Tedeschi (Chair), Posttraumatic growth: An overview of contemporary models. Symposium conducted at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.
29. Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (1989-1990). Positive aspects of critical life problems: recollections of grief. Omega, 20, 265-272.
30. Calhoun L.G., Tedeschi R.G. Posttraumatic growth. Future directions Tedeschi R.G., Park C.L., Calhoun L.G. Posttraumatic growth. Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis:1998;215-238 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
31. Carver C.S., Scheier M.F. On the self-regulation of behavior. 1998;Cambridge University Press, New York.
32. Catherall D.R. Back from the brink. A family guide to overcoming traumatic stress:1992;Bantam, New York.
33. Cole D. After great pain. A new life emerges:1992;Summit Books, New York.
34. Collins R.L., Taylor S.E., Skokan L.A. A better world or a shattered vision? Changes in life perspectives following victimization. Social Cognition. 8:1990;263-285.
35. Cook J., Wimberley D. If I should die before I wake. Religious commitment and adjustment to the death of a child Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 22:1983;222-238.
36. Coudroglou A. Violence as a social mutation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 66:1996;323-328.
37. Creamer M., Burgess P., Pattison P. Reaction to trauma. A cognitive processing model Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 101:1992;452-459.
38. Curbow B., Somerfield R., Baker F., Wingard J.R., Legro M.W. Personal changes, dispositional optimism, and psychological adjustment to bone marrow transplantation. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 16:1993;423-443.
39. Dakof G.A., Taylor S.E. Victims' perceptions of social support. What is helpful from whom? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 58:1990;80-89.
40. Davidson, S. (1992). Holding on to humanity - The message of Holocaust survivors: The Shamai Davidson papers (I.W. Charny, Ed.). New York: New York University Press.
41. Downey G., Silver R.C., Wortman C.B. Reconsidering the attribution-adjustment relation following a major negative event. Coping with the loss of a child Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 59:1990;925-940.
42. Draucker C. Construing benefit from a negative experience of incest. Western Journal of Nursing Research. 14:1992;343-357.
43. Duncan D.F. Growing up under the gun. Children and adolescents coping with violent neighborhoods Journal of Primary Prevention. 16:1996;343-356.
44. Edmonds S., Hooker K. Perceived changes in life meaning following bereavement. Omega. 25:1992;307-318.
45. Elder G.H. Jr., Clipp E.C. Children of the Great Depression. 1974;University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
46. Elder G.H. Jr., Clipp E.C. Combat experience and emotional health. Impairment and resilience in later life Journal of Personality. 57:1989;311-341.
47. Elliot D.M. Traumatic events. Prevalence and delayed recall in the general population Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 65:1997;811-820.
48. Epstein S. The self-concept, the traumatic neurosis, and the structure of personality. Ozer D., Healy J.M. Jr., Stewart A.J. Perspectives on personality (Vol. 3). 1990;63-98 JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.
49. Everly G.S. Jr. An intergrative two-factor model of post-traumatic stress. Everly G.S. Jr., Lating J.M. Psychotraumatology. Key papers and core concepts in post-traumatic stress:1995;27-48 Plenum Press, New York.
50. Fahlberg L.L., Wolfer J., Fahlberg L.A. Personal crisis. Growth or pathology? American Journal of Health Promotion. 7:1992;45-52.
51. Farran C.J., Herth K.A., Popovich J.M. Hope and hopelessness. Critical clinical constructs:1995;Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
52. Feeley N., Gottlieb L.N. Parents' coping and communication following their infants' death. Omega. 19:1988;51-67.
53. Figley C.R., Kleber R.J. Beyond the "victim" Secondary traumatic stress Kleber R.J., Figley C.R., Gersons B.P.R. Beyond trauma. Cultural and societal dynamics:1995;75-98 Plenum Press, New York.
54. Finke R.A., Bettle J. Chaotic cognition. 1996;Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
55. Finkel N.J. Stress, traumas and trauma resolution. American Journal of Community Psychology. 3:1975;173-178.
56. Frazier P.A., Burnett J.W. Immediate coping strategies among rape victims. Journal of Counseling and Development. 72:1994;633-639.
57. Frazier, P., Harlow, T., Schauben, L., & Byrne, C. (1993). Predictors of postrape trauma. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.
58. Freedy J.R., Donkervolt J.C. Traumatic stress. An overview of the field Freedy J.R., Hobfoll S.E. Traumatic stress. From theory to practice:1995;3-28 Plenum Press, New York.
59. Frieze I.H., Hymer S., Greenberg M.S. Describing the victims of crime and violence. Kahn S.S. Victims of crime and violence. Final report of the APA task force on the victims of crime and violence:1984;1-15 American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
60. Fritz G.K., Williams J.R., Amylon M. After treatment ends. Psychosocial sequelae in pediatric cancer survivors American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 58:1988;552-561.
61. Gallmann K. I dreamed of Africa. 1991;Viking, New York.
62. Garbarino J., Dubrow N., Kostelny K., Pardo C. Children in danger. Coping with the consequences of community violence:1992;Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
63. Garbarino, J., & Kostelny, K. (1993). Children's response to war, What do we know? In L. A. Leavitt & N. A. Fox (Eds.), The psychological effects of war and violence on children (pp. 23-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
64. Garmezy, N. (1985). Stress resistant children, The search for protective factors. In J. Stevenson (Ed.), Recent research in developmental psychopathology. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
65. Gilbar O., Dagan A. Coping with loss. Differences between widows and widowers of deceased cancer patients Omega. 31:1995;207-220.
66. Gilbert K.R. Religion as a resource for bereaved parents. Journal of Religion and Health. 31:1992;19-30.
67. Greenberg M.A. Cognitive processing of traumas. The role of intrusive thoughts and reappraisals Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 25:1995;1262-1296.
68. Guiao I.Z. Cultural analysis of research findings on the political instability in the Philippines. Kleber R.J., Figley C.R., Gersons B.P.R. Beyond trauma. Cultural and societal dynamics:1995;133-150 Plenum Press, New York.
69. Hamilton J.C., Greenberg J., Pyszczynski T., Cather C. A self-regulatory perspective on psychopathology and psychotherapy. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration. 3:1993;205-248.
70. Helmreich W.B. Against all odds. Holocaust survivors and the successful lives they made in America:1992;Simon & Schuster, New York.
71. Herman J.L. Trauma and recovery. 1992;Basic Books, New York.
72. Herman J.L. Complex PTSD. A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma Everly G.S. Jr., Lating J.M. Psychotraumatology. Key papers and core concepts in post-traumatic stress:1995;87-100 Plenum, New York.
73. Hogan N., Morse J.M., Tason M.C. Toward an experiential theory of bereavement. Omega. 33:1996;43-65.
74. Holman E.L., Silver R.C. Is it the abuse or the aftermath? A stress and coping approach to understanding responses to incest. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 15:1996;318-339.
75. Holmes G.R., Heckel R.V., Gordon L. Adolescent group therapy. A social competency model:1991;Praeger Press, New York.
76. Horowitz M.J. Stress response syndromes. 1976;Jason Aronson, New York.
77. Horowitz M.J. Stress response syndromes. 2:1986;Jason Aronson, Northvale, NJ.
78. Janoff-Bulman R. Characterological versus behavioral self-blame. Inquiries into depression and rape Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 37:1979;1798-1809.
79. Janoff-Bulman R. Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events. Applications of the schema construct Social Cognition. 7:1989;113-136.
80. Janoff-Bulman R. Shattered assumptions. 1992;The Free Press, New York.
81. Janoff-Bulman R. Victims of violence. Everly G.S. Jr., Lating J.M. Psychotraumatology. Key papers and core concepts in post-traumatic stress:1995;73-86 Plenum Press, New York.
82. Jenkins R. Subversive laughter. The liberating power of comedy:1994;The Free Press, New York.
83. Joseph S., Dalgleish T., Thrasher S., Yule W., Williams R., Hodgkinson P. Chronic emotional processing in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. The relationship of intrusion and avoidance at 3 years to distress at 5 years Behaviour Research & Therapy. 34:1996;357-360.
84. Joseph S., Williams R., Yule W. Changes in outlook following disaster. The preliminary development of a measure to assess positive and negative responses Journal of Traumatic Stress. 6:1993;271-279.
85. Joseph S., Williams R., Yule W. Psychosocial perspectives on post-traumatic stress. Clinical Psychology Review. 15:1995;515-544.
86. Kestenberg J.S. What a psychoanalyst learned from the Holocaust and genocide. International Journal of Psycho-analysis. 74:1993;1117-1129.
87. Klass, D. (1986-1987). Marriage and divorce among bereaved parents in a self-help group. Omega, 17, 237-249.
88. Kleber R.J. Epilogue. Kleber R.J., Figley C.R., Gersons B.P.R. Beyond trauma. Cultural and societal dynamics:1995;299-305 Plenum Press, New York.
89. Kleber R.J., Figley C.R., Gersons B.P.R. Beyond trauma. Cultural and societal dynamics:1995;Plenum Press, New York.
90. Kottler J.A. Beyond blame. A new way of resolving conflicts in relationships:1994;Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
91. Krell R. Child survivors of the Holocaust - Strategies of adaptation. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 38:1993;384-389.
92. Kubany E.S., Abueg F.R., Kilauano W.L., Manke F.P., Kaplan A.S. Development and validation of the sources of Trauma-Related Guilt Survey - War-zone version. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 10:1997;235-258.
93. Kubler-Ross E. The wheel of life. A memoir of living and dying:1997;Scribners, New York.
94. Kulka R.A., Schlenger W.E., Fairbank J.A., Hough R.L., Jordan B.K., Marmar C.R., Weiss D.S. The National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study table of findings and technical appendices. 1991;Brunner/Mazel, New York.
95. Kushner H.S. When bad things happen to good people. 1981;Avon, New York.
96. Laerum E., Johnsen N., Smith P., Larsen S. Can myocardial infarction induce positive changes in family relationships? Family Practice. 4:1987;302-305.
97. Lauer R.H., Lauer J.C. Watersheds. Mastering life's unpredictable crises:1988;Ivy Books, New York.
98. Lehman D.R., Davis C.G., Delongis A., Wortman C., Bluck S., Mandel D.R., Ellard J.H. Positive and negative life changes following bereavement and their relations to adjustment. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 12:1993;90-112.
99. Lerner M.J., Gignac M.A.M. Is it coping or is it growth? A cognitive-affective model of contentment in the elderly. Montada L., Filipp S., Lerner M.J. Life crises and experiences of loss in adulthood. 1992;321-337 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
100. Lewis C.S. A grief observed. 1963;Seabury Press, New York.
101. Lifton R.J. The protean self. Human resilience in an age of fragmentation:1993;Basic Books, New York.
102. Linville P.W. Self-complexity and affective extremity. Don't put all of your eggs in one cognitive basket Social Cognition. 3:1985;94-120.
103. Linville P.W. Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 52:1987;663-676.
104. Lopata H.Z. Self-identity in marriage and widowhood. The Sociological Quarterly. 14:1973;407-418.
105. Lund D.A., Caserta M.S., Dimond M. The course of spousal bereavement in later life. Stroebe M.S., Stroebe W., Hansson R.O. Handbook of bereavement. Theory, research, and intervention:1993;240-254 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
106. Malinak D.P., Hoyt M.F., Patterson V. Adults' reactions to the death of a parent. American Journal of Psychiatry. 136:1979;1152-1156.
107. McAdams D.P. The development of a narrative identity. Buss D.M., Cantor N. Personality psychology. Recent trends and emerging directions:1989;160-174 Springer-Verlag, New York.
108. McAdams D.P. The stories we live by. Personal myths and the making of the self:1993;Morrow, New York.
109. McCann I.L., Pearlman L.A. Psychological trauma and the adult survivor. Theory, therapy, and transformation:1990;Brunner/Mazel, New York. a.
110. McCann I.L., Pearlman L.A. Vicarious traumatization. A framework for understanding the psychological effects of working with victims Journal of Traumatic Stress. 3:1990;131-149. b.
111. McFarlane A.C. Avoidance and intrusion in posttrumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 180:1992;439-445.
112. McFarlane, A. C. (1995). The severity of the trauma; Issues about its role in posttraumatic stress disorder. In R. J. Kleber, C. R. Figley, & B. P. R. Gersons (Eds.), Beyond trauma; Cultural and societal dynamics (pp. 31-54). New York: Plenum Press.
113. McIntosh W.D. When does goal nonattainment lead to negative emotional reaction, and when doesn't it? The role of linking and rumination Martin L.L., Tesser A. Striving and feeling. Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation:1996;53-77 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
114. McIntosh D.N., Silver R., Wortman C. Religion's role in adjustment to a negative life event. Coping with the death of a child Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 65:1993;812-821.
115. McMillen J.C., Smith E.M., Fisher R.H. Perceived benefit and mental health after three types of disaster. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 65:1997;733-739.
116. McMillen J.C., Zuravin S., Rideout G. Perceived benefit from child abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 63:1995;1037-1043.
117. Meichenbaum D. Stress inoculation training. 1985;Pergamon Press, New York.
118. Michela J.L. Interpersonal and individual impacts of a husband's heart attack. Baum A., Singer J.E. Handbook of psychology and health, Volume V. Stress:1987;255-301 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
119. Miles M.S., Crandall E.K.B. The search for meaning and its potential for affecting growth in bereaved parents. Health Values. 7:1983;19-23.
120. Miller K.E. The effects of state terrorism and exile on indigenous Guatemalan refugee children. A mental health assessment and an analysis of children's narratives Child Development. 67:1996;89-106.
121. Miller W.R., C'deBaca J. Quantum change. Toward a psychology of transformation F Heatherton T., Weinberger J.L. Can personality change? 1994;253-280 American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
122. Morgan H.J., Janoff-Bulman R. Positive and negative self-complexity. Patterns of adjustment following traumatic versus non-traumatic life experiences Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 13:1994;63-85.
123. Murphy L., Moriarity A. Vulnerability, coping, and growth. From infancy to adolescence:1976;Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
124. Neeld E.H. Seven choices. Taking the steps to new life after losing someone you love:1990;Delta, New York.
125. Neimeyer, R. A., & Stewart, A. E. (1996). Trauma, healing, and the narrative emplotment of loss. Constructivism in Social Work Practice [Special issu]. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 360-374.
126. Nerken I.R. Grief and the reflective self. Toward a clearer model of loss and growth Death Studies. 17:1993;1-26.
127. Neugarten B.L. Personality and aging. Birren J.E., Schaie K.W. Handbook of the psychology of aging. 1977;626-649 Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
128. Norris F.H., Kaniasty K., Thompson M.P. The psychological consequences of crime. Findings from a longitudinal population-based study Davis R.C., Lurigio A.J., Skogan W.G. Victims of crime. 2:1997;146-166 Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
129. O'Connor D., Wolfe D.M. From crisis to growth at midlife. Changes in personal paradigm Journal of Organizational Behavior. 12:1991;323-340.
130. Overcash W.S., Calhoun L.G., Cann A., Tedeschi R.G. Coping with crises. An examination of the impact of traumatic events on personal belief systems Journal of Genetic Psychology. 157:1996;455-464.
131. Pargament K. God help me. Toward a theoretical framework of coping for the psychology of religion Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion. 2:1990;195-224.
132. Pargament K.I. Religious methods of coping. Resources for the conservation and transformation of significance Shafranske E.P. Religion and the clinical practice of psychology. 1996;215-240 American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
133. Park C.L. Implications of posttraumatic growth for individuals. Tedeschi R.G., Park C.L., Calhoun L.G. Posttraumatic growth. Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis:1998;153-177 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
134. Park C.L., Cohen L., Murch R. Assessment and prediction of stress-related growth. Journal of Personality. 64:1996;71-105.
135. Park C.L., Stiles W.B. Self-disclosure. Friedman H. Encyclopedia of mental health. 1998;411-420 Academic Press, San Diego.
136. Pennebaker J.W. Emotion, disclosure and health. 1995;American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
137. Phifer J.F., Norris F.H. Psychological symptoms in older adults following natural disaster. Nature, timing, duration, and course Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences. 44:1989;207-217.
138. Ponzetti J.J. Bereaved families. A comparison of parents' and grandparents' reactions to the death of a child Omega. 25:1992;63-71.
139. Prescott, K. (1995, November 28). From victim to victim's advocate. Charlotte Observer, p. A15.
140. Price R. A whole new life. 1994;Atheneum, New York.
141. Rachman S. Emotional processing. Behavior Research and Therapy. 18:1980;51-60.
142. Robinson S., Rapaport J., Durst R., Rapaport M., Rosca P., Metzer S., Zilberman L. The late effects of Nazi persecution among elderly Holocaust survivors. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 82:1990;311-315.
143. Rothbaum F., Weisz J.R., Snyder S.S. Changing the world and changing the self. A two-process model of perceived control Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 42:1982;5-37.
144. Rutter M. Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 57:1987;316-331.
145. Sank L.I. Community disasters. Primary prevention and treatment in a health maintenance organization American Psychologist. 34:1979;334-338.
146. Schaefer J.A., Moos R.H. The context for posttraumatic growth. Life crises, individual and social resources, and coping Tedeschi R.G., Park C.L., Calhoun L.G. Posttraumatic growth. Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis:1998;99-125 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
147. Schlesinger B. Children's viewpoints of living in a one-parent family. Journal of Divorce. 5:1982;1-23.
148. Schmookler A.B. Living posthumously. 1997;Henry Holt, New York.
149. Schwab R. Paternal and maternal coping with the death of a child. Death Studies. 14:1990;407-422.
150. Schwartzberg S.S. Struggling for meaning. How HIV-positive gay men make sense of AIDS Professional Psychology: Research & Practice. 24:1993;483-490.
151. Schwartzberg S.S., Janoff-Bulman R. Grief and the search for meaning. Exploring the assumptive worlds of bereaved college students Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 10:1991;270-288.
152. Shay J. Achilles in Vietnam. Combat trauma and the undoing of character:1994;Atheneum, New York.
153. Showers C.J. Compartmentalization of positive and negative self-knowledge. Keeping bad apples out of the bunch Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 62:1992;1036-1049.
154. Showers C.J., Ryff C.D. Self-differentiation and well-being in a life transition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 22:1996;448-460.
155. Shucter S.R. Dimensions of grief. 1986;Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
156. Silver R.C., Boon C., Stones M.H. Searching for meaning in misfortune. Making sense of incest Journal of Social Issues. 39:1983;81-102.
157. Silver R.C., Wortman C.B. Coping with undesirable life events. Garber J., Seligman M.E.P. Human helplessness. Theory and applications:1980;279-340 Academic Press, New York.
158. Simon R.I., Blum R.A. After the terrorist incident. psychotherapeutic treatment of former hostages American Journal of Psychotherapy. 41:1987;194-200.
159. Simpson M.A. What went wrong? Diagnostic and ethical problems in dealing with the effects of torture and repression in South Africa Kleber R.J., Figley C.R., Gersons B.P.R. Beyond trauma. Cultural and societal dynamics:1995;187-212 Plenum Press, New York.
160. Slaby A.E. Aftershock. Surviving the delayed effects of trauma, crisis and loss:1989;Villard Books, New York.
161. Sledge W.H., Boydstun J.A., Rabe A.J. Self-concept changes related to war captivity. Archives of General Psychiatry. 37:1980;430-443.
162. Staub E. The psychology of bystanders, perpetrators, and heroic helpers. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 17:1993;315-341.
163. Sternberg R.J. Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 49:1985;607-627.
164. Strentz T. Law enforcement policy and ego defenses of the hostage. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. 48:1979;20-22.
165. Strickland B.R. Internal-external control expectancies. From contingency to creativity American Psychologist. 44:1989;1-12.
166. Stroebe, M., & Schut, H. (1996). The Dual Process Model of Coping with Loss. In L. G. Calhoun (Chair), New perspectives on interventions and growth following traumatic loss. Symposium presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.
167. Stroebe M., van den Bout J., Schut H. Myths and misconceptions about bereavement. The opening of a debate Omega. 29:1994;187-203.
168. Summerfield D. Addressing human response to war and atrocity. Major challenges in research and practices and the limitationsof western psychiatric models Kleber R.J., Figley C.R., Gersons B.P.R. Beyond trauma. Cultural and societal dynamics:1995;17-29 Plenum Press, New York.
169. Tait R., Silver R.C. Coming to terms with major negative life events. Uleman J.S., Bargh J.A. Unintended thought. 1989;351-382 Guilford Press, New York.
170. Taylor S.E., Brown J.D. Illusion and well-being. A social psychological perspective on mental health Psychological Bulletin. 103:1988;193-210.
171. Taylor S.E., Brown J.D. Positive illusions and well-being revisited. Separating fact from fiction Psychological Bulletin. 116:1994;21-27.
172. Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1988). Perceived benefits in coping with physical handicaps. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Atlanta.
173. Tedeschi R.G., Calhoun L.G. Trauma and transformation. Growing in the aftermath of suffering:1995;Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
174. Tedeschi R.G., Calhoun L.G. The posttraumatic growth inventory. Measuring the positive legacy of trauma Journal of Traumatic Stress. 9:1996;455-471.
175. Tedeschi R.G., Park C.L., Calhoun L.G. Posttraumatic growth. Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis:1998;Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
176. Tennen H., Affleck G. Blaming others for threatening events. Psychological Bulletin. 108:1990;209-232.
177. Tennen H., Affleck G. Personality and transformation in the face of adversity. Tedeschi R.G., Park C.L., Calhoun L.G. Posttraumatic growth. Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis:1998;65-98 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
178. Tennen H., Affleck G., Urrows S., Higgins P., Mendola R. Perceiving control, construing benefits, and daily processes in rheumatoid arthritis. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science. 24:1992;186-203.
179. Thomas L.E., DiGiulio R.C., Sheehan N.W. Identifying loss and psychological crisis in widowhood. International Journal of Aging and Human Development. 26:1991;279-295.
180. Thompson S.C. Finding positive meaning in a stressful event and coping. Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 6:1985;279-295.
181. Tobin D.L., Holroyd K.A., Reynolds R.V., Wigal J.K. The hierarchical structure of the Coping Strategies Inventory. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 13:1989;343-361.
182. Van Velsen C., Gorst-Unsworth C., Turner S. Survivors of torture and organized violence. Demography and diagnosis Journal of Traumatic Stress. 9:1996;181-193.
183. Veronen L.J., Kilpatrick D.G. Rape. A precursor of change Callahan E.J., McCluskey K.A. Life Span Developmental Psychology. Non-normative events:1983;167-191 Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
184. Viorst J. Necessary losses. 1986;Fawcett, New York.
185. Wallerstein J.S. Women after divorce. Preliminary report from a ten-year follow-up American Journal of Orthpsychiatry. 56:1986;65-77.
186. Weber A.L., Harvey J.H. Accounts in coping with relationship loss. Weber A.L., Harvey J.H. A perspective on close relationships. 1994;285-306 Allyn & Bacon, Boston.
187. Weisner T.S., Betzer L., Stolze L. Religion and families of children with developmental delays. American Journal of Mental Retardation. 95:1991;647-662.
188. Werner E.E. High-risk children in young adulthood. A longitudinal study from birth to 32 years American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 59:1989;72-81.
189. Wills T.A. Downward comparison as a coping mechanism. Snyder C.R., Ford C.E. Coping with negative life events. Clinical and social psychological perspectives:1987;243-268 Plenum Press, New York.
190. Wolin S.J., Wolin S. The resilient self. How survivors of troubled families rise above adversity:1993;Villard Books, New York.
191. Wortman C., Silver R.C. The myths of coping with loss. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 57:1989;349-357.
192. Wuthnow R. Sharing the journey. Support groups and America's new quest for community:1994;The Free Press, New York.
193. Yalom I.D., Lieberman M.A. Bereavement and heightened existential awareness. Psychiatry. 54:1991;334-345.
194. Zlotnik C., Zakriski A., Shea T., Costello E., Begin A., Pearlstein T., Simpson E. The long-term sesquelae of sexual abuse. Support for a complex posttraumatic stress disorder Journal of Traumatic Stress. 9:1996;195-205.