Early stress response: A vulnerability framework for functional impairment following mild traumatic brain injury

Research and Theory for Nursing Practice

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 42-61

  Bay, Esther H ^a,c   Liberzon, Israel ^b  

^a MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^c NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Functional status; Mild traumatic brain injury; Stress; Vulnerability

Indexed keywords

HYDROCORTISONE;

ADRENAL GLAND; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BRAIN INJURY; CONVALESCENCE; HUMAN; HYPOPHYSIS; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; MODEL; NURSE ATTITUDE; PAIN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; POSTCONCUSSION SYNDROME; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; REHABILITATION NURSING; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR;

ADRENAL GLANDS; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; BRAIN INJURIES; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; MODELS, NURSING; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; NURSE'S ROLE; PAIN; PITUITARY GLAND; POST-CONCUSSION SYNDROME; RECOVERY OF FUNCTION; REHABILITATION NURSING; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC;

EID: 67650507275     PISSN: 15416577     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1891/1541-6577.23.1.42     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.
2. Bay, E., & Bergman, K. (2006). Symptom experience after traumatic brain injury. Care Management Journals, 7(1), 3-9.
3. Bay, E., & Donders, J. (2008). Risk factors for depressive symptoms after mild-to-moderate TBI. Brain Injury, 22(3), 233-241.
4. Bay, E., Hagerty, B., Williams, R. A., & Kirsch, N. (2005). Chronic stress, salivary cortisol response, interpersonal relatedness, and depression among community-dwelling survivors of traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neuroscience Nursing, 36(6), 55-65.
5. Bay, E., Kirsch, N., & Gillespie, B. (2004). Chronic stress conditions do explain post-TBI depression. Research and Theory for Nursing Practice: An International Journal, 18(2/3), 213-228.
6. Bay, E., & McLean, S. (2007). Mild traumatic brain injury: An update for advanced practice nurses. Journal of Neuroscience Nursing, 39(1), 33-38.
7. Bay, E., & Sikorskii, A. (2009). Functional status, chronic stress, and cortisol response after mild-to-moderate traumatic brain injury. Biological Research for Nursing, 10(3), 213-225.
8. Bay, E., Sikorskii, A., & Saint-Arnault, D. (in press). Sex differences in the depression experience after mild-to-moderate TBI. Journal of Neuroscience Nursing.
9. Bazarian, J., & Atabaki, S. (2001). Predicting post-concussion syndrome after minor traumatic brain injury. Academic Emergency Medicine, 8, 788-795.
10. Bazarian, J., McClung, J., Shah, M., Cheng, Y., Flesher, W., & Kraus, J. (2005). Mild traumatic brain injury in the United States, 1998-2000. Brain Injury, 19(2), 85-91.
11. Bazarian, J., Zhong, J., Blyth, B., Zhu, T., Kavcic, V., & Peterson, D. (2007). Diffusion tensor imaging detects clinically important axonal damage after mild traumatic brain injury: A pilot study. Journal of Neurotrauma, 24, 1447-1459.
12. Bazarian, J. J., Blyth, B., & Cimpello, L. (2006). Bench to bedside: Evidence for brain injury after concussion-looking beyond the computer tomography scan. Academic Emergency Medicine, 13, 199-214.
13. Bazarian, J. J., McClung, J., Cheng, Y. T., Flesher, W., & Schneider, S. M. (2005). Emergency department management of mild traumatic brain injury in the USA. Journal of Emergency Medicine, 22, 473-477.
14. Begaz, T., Kyriacou, D., Segal, J., & Bazarian, J. (2006). Serum biochemical markers for post-concussion syndrome in patients with mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 23(8), 1201-1210.
15. Belanger, H., Curtiss, G., Demery, J. A., Lebowitz, B., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2005). Factors moderating neuropsychological outcomes following mild traumatic brain injury: A meta-analysis. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 11(3), 215-227.
16. Biasca, N., & Maxwell, W. (2007). Minor traumatic brain injury in sports: A review in order to prevent neurological sequelae. Progress in Brain Research, 151, 263-291.
17. Bigler, E. (2000). The lesions in traumatic brain injury: Implications for clinical neuropsychology. Unpublished manuscript.
18. Biondi, M., & Picardi, A. (1999). Psychological stress and neuroendocrine function in humans: The last two decades of research. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 68, 114-150.
19. Boake, C., McCauley, S., Levin, H. S., Contant, C., Song, J., Brown, S., et al. (2004). Limited agreement between criteria-based diagnoses of postconcussional syndrome. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 16, 493-499.
20. Borg, J., Holm, L., Peloso, P., Cassidy, J. D., Carroll, L., von Holst, H., et al. (2004). Non-surgical intervention and cost for mild traumatic brain injury: Results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, S43, 76-83.
21. Bryant, R. (2001). Posttraumatic stress disorder and mild brain injury: Controversies, causes and consequences. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 23(6), 718-728.
22. Bryant, R. (2006). Longitudinal psychophysiological studies of heart rate: Mediating effects and implications for treatment. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071, 19-26.
23. Bryant, R., & Harvey, A. (1999). Postconcussive symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder after mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 187(5), 302-305.
24. Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G., Malarkey, W., Kiecolt-Glaser, J., Sheridan, J., Poehlmann, K., et al. (1998). Autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune responses to psychological stress: The reactivity hypothesis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 5(1), 664-673.
25. Carroll, L., Cassidy, J. D., Holm, L., Kraus, J., & Coronado, V. (2004). Methodological issues and research recommendations for mild traumatic brain injury: The WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 43S, 113-125.
26. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003). Report to Congress on mild traumatic brain injury in the United States: Steps to prevent a serious public health problem. Retrieved January 10, 2008, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/tbi/TBI-Publications
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2007). Traumatic brain injury facts. Retrieved April 1, 2008, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/tbi/TBI
28. Chrousos, G. P. (1998). Stress as a medical and scientific idea and its implications. Advanced Pharmacology, 42, 552-556.
29. Cohen, H., Benjamin, J., Geva, A., Matar, M., Kaplan, Z., & Kotler, M. (2000). Autonomic dysregulation in panic disorder and in post-traumatic stress disorder: Application of power spectrum analysis of heart rate variability at rest and in response to recollection of trauma or panic attacks. Psychiatry Research, 96, 1-13.
30. Cohen, S., Kessler, R., & Gordon, L. (1995). Measuring stress: A guide for social scientists. New York: Oxford University Press.
31. Cohen, H., Kotler, M., Matar, M., Kaplan, Z., Loewenthal, U., Miodownik, H., et al. (1998). Analysis of heart rate variability in posttraumatic stress disorder patients in response to a trauma-related reminder. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1054-1059.
32. Cohen, H., Kotler, M., Matar, M., Kaplan, Z., Miodownik, H., & Cassuto, Y. (1997). Power spectral analysis of heart rate variability in posttraumatic stress disorder patients. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 627-629.
33. Cohen, H., Neumann, L., Shore, M., Amir, M., Cassuto, Y., & Buskila, D. (2000). Autonomic dysfunction in patients with fibromyalgia: Application of power spectral analysis of heart rate variability. Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism, 29(4), 217-227.
34. Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States (Vol. 1). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
35. Comerford, V., Geffen, G., May, C., Medland, S., & Geffen, L. (2002). A rapid screen of the severity of mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(4), 409-419.
36. Deb, S., Lyons, I., & Koutzoukis, C. (1998). Neuropsychiatric sequelae one year after a minor head injury. Journal Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 65, 899-902.
37. Dickerson, S., & Kemeny, M. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 355-391.
38. Ehlert, U., & Straub, R. (1998). Physiological and emotional response to psychological stressors in psychiatric and psychosomatic disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 6(851), 477-486.
39. Emanuelson, I., Holmkvist, A., Bjorklund, R., & Stalhammar, D. (2003). Quality of life and post-concussion symptoms in adults after mild traumatic brain injury: A population-based study in western Sweden. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 108, 332-338.
40. Eyres, S., Carey, A., Gilworth, G., & Tennant, A. (2005). Construct validity and reliability of the River mead post-concussion symptoms questionnaire. Clinical Rehabilitation, 19(8), 878-887.
41. Fann, J. R., Katon, W. J., Uomoto, J. M., & Esselman, P. C. (1995). Psychiatric disorders and functional disability in outpatients with traumatic brain injuries. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(10), 1493-1499.
42. Fenton, G., McClelland, R., Montgomery, A., MacFlynn, G., & Rutherford, W. (1993). The postconcussional syndrome: Social antecedents and psychological sequelae. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 493-497.
43. Field, M., Collins, M., Lovell, M., & Maroon, J. (2003). Does age play a role in recovery from sports-related concussion? A comparison of high school and collegiate athletes. Journal of Pediatrics, 142, 546-553.
44. Findler, M., Cantor, J., Haddad, L., Gordon, W., & Ashman, T. (2001). The reliability and validity of the SF-36 health survey questionnaire for use with individuals with traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 15(8), 715-723.
45. Flesher, M. R., Delahanty, D. L., Raimonde, A. J., & Spoonster, E. (2001). Amnesia, neuroendocrine levels and PTSD in motor vehicle accident victims. Brain Injury, 15(10), 879-889.
46. Friedland, J. F., & Dawson, D. R. (2001). Function after motor vehicle accidents: A prospective study of mild head injury and posttraumatic stress. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189(7), 426-434.
47. Gaab, J., Sonderegger, L., Scherrer, S., & Ehlert, U. (2006). Psychoneuroendocrine effects of cognitive-behavioral stress management in a naturalistic setting - An RCT. Psychoneuro endocrinology, 31(4), 428-438.
48. Gaetz, M. (2004). The neurophysiology of brain injury. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115, 4-18.
49. Gasquoine, P. (2000). Postconcussional symptoms in chronic back pain. Applied Neuropsychology, 7(2), 83-89.
50. Giza, C., & Hovda, D. (2001). The neurometabolic cascade of concussion. Journal of Athletic Training, 36(3), 228-235.
51. Gordon, W., Haddad, L., Brown, M., Hibbard, M., & Sliwinski, M. (2000). The sensitivity and specificity of self-reported symptoms in individuals with traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 14(1), 21-33.
52. Gouvier, W. D., Cubic, B., Jones, G., Brantley, P., & Cutlip, Q. (1992). Postconcussion symptoms and daily stress in normal and head-injured college populations. Archives in Clinical Neuropsychology, 7, 193-211.
53. Gray, D. B., & Henershot, G. E. (2000). The ICIDH-D: Developments for a new era of outcomes research. Archives in Physical Medicine Rehabilitation, 81(Suppl. 2), S10-S14.
54. Gunstad, J., & Suhr, J. (2004). Cognitive factors in postconcussion syndrome symptom report. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 391-405.
55. Heim, C., Ehlert, U., & Hellhammer, D. (2000). The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 1-35.
56. Hoge, C., McGurk, D., Thomas, J., Cox, A., Engel, C., & Castro, C. (2008). Mild traumatic brain injury in US soldiers returning from Iraq. New England Journal of Medicine, 358(5), 453-463.
57. Iverson, G. (1997). Postconcussive symptoms in persons with chronic pain. Brain Injury, 11(11), 783-790.
58. Iverson, G. L. (2005). Outcome from mild traumatic brain injury. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18, 301-317.
59. Iverson, G. L. (2006). Misdiagnosis of the persistent postconcussion syndrome in patients with depression. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21, 303-310.
60. Kay, T., Newman, B., Cavallo, M., Ezrachi, O., & Resnick, M. (1992). Toward a neuropsychological model of functional disability after mild traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 6(4), 371-384.
61. Kearney, P., & Pryor, J. (2004). The international classification of functioning, disability and health (ICF) and nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 46(2), 162-170.
62. Knight, M. (2000). Cognitive ability and functional status. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 31(6), 1459-1468.
63. Koren, D., Arnon, I., & Klein, E. (1999). Acute stress response and posttraumatic stress disorder in traffic accident victims: A one-year prospective, follow-up study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(3), 367-373.
64. Landre, N., Poppe, C., Davis, N., Schmaus, B., & Hobbs, S. (2006). Cognitive functioning and postconcussive symptoms in trauma patients with and without mild TBI. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21, 255-273.
65. Lishman, W. A. (1986). Physiogenesis and psychogenesis in the post concussional syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 460-469.
66. Litz, B., Engel, C., Bryant, R., & Papa, A. (2007). A randomized, controlled proof-of-concept trial of an internet-based, therapist-assisted self-management treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry,164(11), 1676-1683.
67. Lutgendorf, S., Kreder, K., Rothrock, N., Hoffman, A., Kirschbaum, C., Sternberg, E., et al. (2002). Diurnal cortisol variations and symptoms in patients with interstitial cystitis. Journal of Urology, 167, 1338-1343.
68. Maio, R., Kirsch, N., Tan-Schriner, C., Frederiksen, S., Breer, L., & Tanner, C. (2006). Outcome of minor traumatic brain injury. Academy of Emergency Medicine, 13(5, Suppl. 1), S11.
69. Martelli, M., Zasler, N., Bender, M., & Nicholson, K. (2004). Psychological, neurophysiological, and medical considerations in assessment and management of pain. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 19(1), 10-28.
70. Martelli, M., Zasler, N., & MacMillan, P. (1998). Mediating the relationship between injury, impairment and disability: A vulnerability, stress and coping model of adaptation following brain injury. NeuroRehabilitation, 11, 51-66.
71. Mayou, R., Black, J., & Bryant, B. (2000). Unconsciousness, amnesia and psychiatric symptoms following road traffic accident injury. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 540-545.
72. McCarthy, M., Dikmen, S., Langlois, J., Selassie, A., Gu, J., & Horner, M. (2006). Self-reported psychosocial health among adults with traumatic brain injury. Archives in Physical Medicine Rehabilitation, 87(7), 953-961.
73. McCauley, S. R., Boake, C., Levin, H. S., Contant, C. F., & Song, J. X. (2001). Postconcussional disorder following mild to moderate traumatic brain injury: Anxiety, depression, and social support as risk factors and comorbidities. Journal of Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology, 23(6), 792-808.
74. McClelland, R. J. (1996). The postconcussion syndrome: A rose by any other name. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 40(6), 563-568.
75. McEwen, B. (2002). The end of stress as we know it. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.
76. McEwen, B. S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 171-179.
77. McEwen, B. S. (2008). Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: Understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. European Journal of Pharmacology, 583(2-3), 174-185.
78. McLean, S. (2007). Cortisol response to minor motor vehicle collision predicts pain and psychological sequelae. Budapest: American Psychosomatic Society.
79. McLean, S. A., Clauw, D., Abelson, J., & Liberzon, I. (2005). The development of persistent pain and psychological morbidity after motor vehicle collision: Integrating the potential role of stress response systems into a biopsychosocial model. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67, 783-790.
80. McLean, S. A., Switzer, M., Jones, C. W., Sochor, M. R., Newton, C. R. H., Withrow, A. D., et al. (2006, November). Emergency department physiologic predictors of pain and psychological sequelae after motor vehicle collision. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American College of Rheumatology, Washington, DC.
81. McQuiston, C., & Campbell, J. C. (1997). Theoretical substruction: A guide for theory testing research. Nursing Science Quarterly, 10(3), 117-123.
82. Meares, S., Shores, E., & Batchelor, J. (2006). The relationship of psychological and cognitive factors and opioids in the development of the postconcussion syndrome in general trauma patients with mild traumatic brain injury. Journal International Neuropsychological Society, 12, 792-801.
83. Meares, S., Shores, E. A., Taylor, A., Batchelor, J., Bryant, R., Baguley, I., et al. (2007). Mild traumatic brain injury does not predict acute postconcussion syndrome. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 8, 1-17.
84. Medana, I., & Esiri, M. (2003). Axonal damage: A key predictor of outcome in human CNS diseases. Brain Behavior and Immunity, 126, 515-530.
85. Mittenberg, W., Canyock, E. M., Condit, D., & Patton, C. (2001). Treatment of post-concussion syndrome following mild head injury. Journal of Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology, 23, 829-836.
86. Mittl, R., Grossman, R., Hiehle, J., Hurst, R., Kauder, D., & Genarelli, T. A.(1994). Prevalence of MRI evidence of diffuse axonal injury in patients with mild head injury and normal head CT findings. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 15, 1583-1589.
87. Mooney, G., Speed, J., & Sheppard, S. (2005). Factors related to recovery after mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 19(12), 975-987.
88. Murray, C., & Lopez, A. (1997). Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990-2020: Global burden of disease study. Lancet, 349(9064), 1498-1504.
89. Nemeroff, C. (1998). The neurobiology of depression. Scientific American, 278(6), 2-49.
90. Nicholson, K., & Martelli, M. (2004). The problem of pain. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 19(1), 2-10.
91. Pagulayan, K., Temkin, N., Machamer, J., & Dikmen, S. (2006). A longitudinal study of health-related quality of life after traumatic brain injury. Archives in Physical Medicine Rehabilitation, 87, 611-618.
92. Paniak, C., Phillips, K., Toller-Lobe, G., Durand, A., & Nagy, J. (1999). Sensitivity of three recent questionnaires to mild traumatic brain injury-related effects. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 14(3), 211-219.
93. Paniak, C., Toller-Lobe, G., Durand, A., & Nagy, J. (1998). A randomized trial of two treatments for mild traumatic brain injury: 1-year follow-up. Brain Injury, 12(12), 1011-1023.
94. Paylo, S., & Beck, J. G. (2005). Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, pain, and perceived life control: Associations with psychosocial and physical functioning. Pain, 117, 121-127.
95. Peloso, P., Carroll, L., Cassidy, J. D., Borg, J., von Holst, H., Holm, L., et al. (2004). Critical evaluation of the existing guidelines on mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 43, 106-112.
96. Ponsford, J., Willmott, C., Rothwell, A., Cameron, P., Kelly, A.-M., Helms, R., et al. (2000). Factors influencing outcome following mild traumatic brain injury in adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 568-579.
97. Ponsford, J., Willmott, C., Rothwell, A., Camerson, P., Kelly, A., Helms, R., et al. (2002). Impact of early intervention on outcome following mild head injury in adults. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 73, 330-332.
98. Pruessner, J., Hellhammer, D., & Kirschbaum, C. (1999). Burnout, perceived stress, and cortisol responses to awakening. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61, 197-204.
99. Pruessner, J., Wolf, O., Hellhammer, D., Buske-Kirschbaum, A., vonAuer, K., Jobst, S., et al. (1997). Free cortisol levels after awakening: A reliable biological marker for the assessment of adrenocortical activity. Life Sciences, 61(26), 2539-2549.
100. Pruessner, M., Hellhammer, D., Pruessner, J., & Lupien, S. (2003). Self-reported depressive symptoms and stress levels in healthy young men: Associations with the cortisol response to awakening. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(1), 92-99.
101. Radley, J., Rocher, A., Rodriguez, A., Ehlenberger, D., Dammann, M., McEwen, B. S., et al. (2008). Repeated stress alters dendritic spine morphology in the rat medial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 507, 1141-1150.
102. Rechlin, T. (1994). Decreased parameters of heart rate variation in amitriptyline treated patients: Lower parameters in melancholic depression than in neurotic depression. A biological marker? Biological Psychiatry, 36, 705-707.
103. Rees, P. (2003). Contemporary issues in mild traumatic brain injury. Archives in Physical Medicine Rehabilitation, 84(12), 1885-1894.
104. Reeves, T., Phillips, L. L., & Povlishock, J. T. (2005). Myelinated and unmyelinated axons of the corpus callosum differ in vulnerability and functional recovery following traumatic brain injury. Experimental Neurology, 196, 126-137.
105. Rohleder, N., Wolf, J., & Kirschbaum, C. (2003). Glucocorticoid sensitivity in humans - Interindividual differences and acute stress effects. Stress, 6(3), 207-222.
106. Rottenberg, J. (2007). Cardiac vagal control in depression: A critical analysis. Biological Psychology, 74, 200-211.
107. Ruff, R. (2005). Two decades of advances in understanding of mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 20(1), 5-18.
108. Ruffolo, C., Friedland, J., Dawson, D., Colantonio, A., & Lindsay, P. (1999). Mild traumatic brain injury from motor vehicle accidents: Factors associated with return to work. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 80(4), 392-398.
109. Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Why stress is bad for your brain. Science, 273, 749-750.
110. Sapolsky, R. M. (2003). Stress and plasticity in the limbic system. Neurochemical Research, 28(11), 1735-1742.
111. Sapolsky, R. (2004). Why zebras don't get ulcers (2nd ed.). New York: Henry Holt.
112. Sapolsky, R. (2005). Sick of poverty. Scientific American, 12, 93-99.
113. Sapolsky, R., Romero, M., & Munck, A. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21(1), 55-89.
114. Satz, P., Alfano, M., Light, R., Morgenstern, H., Zaucha, K., Asarnow, R., et al. (1999). Persistent post-concussive syndrome: A proposed methodology and literature review to determine the effects, if any, of mild head and other bodily injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 21(5), 620-628.
115. Schneider, H., Kreitschmann-Andermahr, I., Ghigo, E., Stalla, G., & Agha, A. (2007). Hypothalamopituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Journal of the American Medical Association, 298(12), 1429-1438.
116. Schneiderman, A., Braver, E., & Kang, H. (2008). Understanding sequelae of injury mechanisms and mild traumatic brain injury incurred during the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan: Persistent postconcussive symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Epidemiology, 167(12), 1446-1452.
117. Schretlen, D. J., & Shapiro, A. M. (2003). A quantitative review of the effects of traumatic brain injury on cognitive functioning. International Review of Psychiatry in Medicine, 15(4), 341-349.
118. Smith-Seemiller, L., Fow, N. R., Kant, R., & Franzen, M. D. (2003). Presence of post- concussion syndrome symptoms in patients with chronic pain vs. mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 17(3), 199-206.
119. Sojka, P., Stalnacke, B., Bjornstig, U., & Karlsson, K. (2006). One-year follow-up of patients with mild traumatic brain injury: Occurrence of post-traumatic stress-related symptoms at follow-up and serum levels of cortisol, S-100b and neuron-specific enolase in acute phase. Brain Injury, 20(6), 613-620.
120. Stalnacke, B., Bjornstig, U., Karlsson, K., & Sojka, P. (2005). One-year follow-up of mild traumatic brain injury: Post-concussion symptoms, disabilities and life satisfaction in relation to serum levels of s-100b and neurone-specific enolase in acute phase. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 37, 300-305.
121. Stulemeijer, M., van der Werf, S., Jacobs, B., J, B., van Vugt, A., Brauer, J., et al. (2006). Impact of additional extracranial injuries on outcome after MTBI. Journal of Neurotrauma, 23(10), 1561-1569.
122. Suhr, J., & Gunstad, J. (2002). Postconcussive symptom report: The relative influence of head injury and depression. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(8), 981-993.
123. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. (1996). Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Circulation, 93, 1043-1065.
124. Thornhill, S., Teasdale, G., Murray, G., McEwen, J., & Roy, C. (2000). Disability in young people and adults one year after head injury: Prospective cohort study. British Medical Journal, 320, 1631-1635.
125. Thurston, C., & Randich, A. (1992). Electrical stimulation of the subdiaphragmatic vagus in rats: Inhibition of heat-evoked responses of spinal dorsal horn neurons and central substrates mediating inhibition of the nociceptive tail flick reflex. Pain, 51, 349-365.
126. Tsigos, C., & Chrousos, G. (2002). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neuroendocrine factors and stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 865-871.
127. Vigo, D., Siri, L., Ladronde, E., Guevara, M. S., Martinez, M., Fahrer, R. D., et al. (2004). Neurobiology of decreased heart rate variability in older patients with recent acute coronary syndrome. American Journal of Cardiology, 93, 756-760.
128. Vingerhoets, A. J., Ratliff-Crain, J., Jabaaij, L., Tilders, F. J., Moleman, P., & Menges, L. J. (1996). Self-reported stressors, symptom complaints and psychobiological functioning - II: Psychoneuroendocrine variables. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 40(2), 191-203.
129. Vlaeyen, J., & Lington, S. (2000). Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: A state of the art. Pain, 85, 317-332.
130. Wang, Y. W., Chan, R., & Deng, Y. (2006). Examination of postconcussion-like symptoms in healthy university students: Relationships to subjective and objective neuropsychological function performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21(4), 339-347.
131. Ware, J. E. (2007). SF-36 health survey update. Retrieved September 7, 2006, from http://www.qualitymetric.com/sf36/spine.pdf
132. Wessa, M., Rohleder, N., Kirschbaum, C., & Flor, H. (2006). Altered cortisol awakening response in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31(2), 209-215.
133. Wood, R. L. (2004). Understanding the "miserable minority": A diathesis-stress paradigm for post-concussional syndrome. Brain Injury, 18(11), 1135-1153.
134. World Health Organization. (2001). The International Classification of Functioning (ICF), disability and health. Retrieved April 15, 2008, from http://www.who.int/classification/icf/en
135. Wust, S., Federenko, I., Hellhammer, D., & Kirschbaum, C. (2000). Genetic factors, perceived chronic stress, and the free cortisol response to awakening. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 707-720.
136. Wust, S., Wolf, J., Hellhammer, D. H., Federenko, I., Schommer, N., & Kirschbaum, C. (2000). The cortisol awakening response - Normal values and confounds. Noise and Health, 7, 79-88.
137. Yehuda, R. (1998). Psychoneuroendocrinology of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21, 359-379.
138. Yehuda, R., Southwick, S., Nussbaum, G., Wahby, V., Mason, J., & Giller, E. (1990). Low urinary cortisol excretion in patients with PTSD. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 178, 366-369.