Ecological consequences of scaling of chew cycle duration and daily feeding time in Primates

Journal of Human Evolution

Volumn 56, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 570-585

  Ross, Callum F ^a   Washington, Rhyan L ^b   Eckhardt, Alison ^b   Reed, David A ^a   Vogel, Erin R ^c   Dominy, Nathaniel J ^c   Machanda, Zarin P ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^d HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Chewing; Ecology; Food material properties; Mastication

Indexed keywords

ALLOMETRY; BODY MASS; BODY SIZE; FEEDING ECOLOGY; INGESTION RATE; METABOLISM; PHYLOGENETICS; POWER LAW; PRIMATE;

PRIMATES;

EID: 67349125372     PISSN: 00472484     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.02.007     Document Type: Article

References (147)

1. Agrawal K.R., and Lucas P.W. The mechanics of the first bite. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 270 (2003) 1277-1282
2. Alonso C., and Langguth A. Ecologia e comportamento de Callithrix jacchus (Primates: Callitrichidae) numa ilha de floresta atlântica. Rev. Nordestina Biol. 6 2 (1989) 105-137
3. Anapol F., Shahnoor N., and Ross C.F. Scaling of reduced physiologic cross-sectional area in primate muscles of mastication. In: Vinyard C., Wall C.E., and Ravosa M.J. (Eds). Primate Craniofacial Function and Biology (2008), Kluwer/Academic Press, New York 201-216
4. Anderson K., Throckmorton G.S., Buschang P.H., and Hayasaki H. The effects of bolus hardness on masticatory kinematics. J. Oral Rehab. 29 (2002) 689-696
5. Bravo S.P., and Sallenave A. Foraging behavior and activity patterns of Alouatta caraya in northeastern Argentinean Flooded Forest. Int. J. Primatol. 24 (2003) 825-846
6. Britt A. Diet and feeding behaviour of the black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata variegata) in the Betampona reserve, eastern Madagascar. Folia Primatol. 71 (2000) 133-141
7. Brotoisworo E., and Dirgayusa I.W.A. Ranging and feeding behavior of Presbytis cristata in the Pangandaran Nature Reserve, West Java, Indonesia. In: Ehara A., Kimura T., Takenaka O., and Iwamoto M. (Eds). Primatology Today (1991), Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam 115-118
8. Calder W.A.I. Size, Function, and Life History (1984), Harvard University Press, Harvard
9. Chivers D.J. Malayan Forest Primates (1980), Plenum Press, New York
10. Chivers D.J. Gibbons. In: MacDonald D. (Ed). All the World's Animals: Primates (1985), Torstar Books, Inc, New York 118-123
11. Chivers D.J. Measuring food intake in wild animals: Primates. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 57 (1998) 321-332
12. Clauss M., Streich W.J., Nunn C.L., Ortmann S., Hohmann G., Schwarm A., and Hummel J. The influence of natural diet composition, food intake level, and body size on ingesta passage in primates. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A. Mol. Integr. Physiol. 150 (2008) 274-281
13. Clutton-Brock T.H., and Harvey P.H. Species differences in feeding and ranging behavior in primates. In: Clutton-Brock T.H. (Ed). Primate Ecology: Studies of Feeding and Ranging Behaviour in Lemurs, Monkeys and Apes (1977), Academic Press, London 557-584
14. Curtis D.J. Diet and nutrition in wild mongoose lemurs (Eulemur mongoz) and their implications for the evolution of female dominance and small group size in lemurs. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 124 (2004) 234-247
15. Darvell B.W., Lee P.K.D., Yuen T.D.B., and Lucas P.W. A portable fracture toughness tester for biological materials. Meas. Sci. Technol. 7 (1996) 954-962
16. Derfler T.R. The time budget of a group of wild woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha). Int. J. Primatol. 16 1 (1995) 107-120
17. Di Fiore A., and Rodman P.S. Time allocation patterns of lowland woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii) in a neotropical terra firma forest. Int. J. Primatol. 22 (2001) 449-480
18. Digby L.J., Ferrari S.F., and Saltzman W. The role of competition in cooperatively breeding species. In: Campbell C.J., Fuentes A., Mackinnon K.C., Panger M., and Bearder S.K. (Eds). Primates in Perspective (2006), Oxford University Press, New York 85-106
19. Ding W., and Zhao K. Rhinopithecus bieti at Tacheng, Yunnan: diet and daytime activities. Int. J. Primatol. 25 (2004) 583-598
20. Doran D.M. Ontogeny of locomotion in mountain gorillas and chimpanzees. J. Hum. Evol. 32 4 (1997) 323-344
21. Druzinsky R.E. The time allometry of mammalian chewing movements: chewing frequency scales with body mass in mammals. J. Theor. Biol. 160 (1993) 427-440
22. Eley R.M., Strum S.C., Muchem G., and Reid G.D.F. Nutrition, body condition, activity patterns, and parasitism of free-ranging troops of olive baboons (Papio anubis) in Kenya. Am. J. Primatol. 18 (1989) 209-219
23. Falster D.S., Warton D.I., and Wright I.J. SMATR: standardised major axis tests and routines, ver 2.0. Available from: (2006). http://www.bio.mq.edu.au/ecology/SMATR/
24. Fashing P.J. African colobine monkeys: patterns of between-group interaction. In: Campbell C.J., Fuentes A., Mackinnon K.C., Panger M., and Bearder S.K. (Eds). Primates in Perspective (2006), Oxford University Press, New York 208
25. Ferrari S.F., and Rylands A.B. Activity budgets and differential visibility in field studies of three marmosets (Callithrix spp.). Folia Primatol. 63 (1994) 78-83
26. Fleagle J.G. Primate Adaptation and Evolution (1999), Academic Press, San Diego
27. Fortelius M. Ungulate cheek teeth: developmental, functional, and evolutionary interrelationships. Acta Zool. Fenn. 180 (1985) 1-76
28. Foster K.D., Woda A., and Peyron M.A. Effect of texture of plastic and elastic model foods on the parameters of mastication. J. Neurophysiol. 95 6 (2006) 3469-3479
29. Fox E.F., van Schaik C.P., Sitompul A., and Wright D.N. Intra- and interpopulational differences in orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) activity and diet: implications for the invention of tool use. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 125 (2004) 162-174
30. Garber P.A. Diet, foraging patterns, and resources defense in a mixed species troop of Saguinus mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis in Amazonian Peru. Behaviour 105 1-2 (1988) 18-34
31. Garcia J.E., and Braza F. Activity rhythms and use of space of a group of Aotus azarae in Bolivia during the rainy season. Primates 28 3 (1987) 337-342
32. Garland T., and Ives A.R. Using the past to predict the present: confidence intervals for regression equations in phylogenetic comparative methods. Am. Nat. 155 3 (2000) 346-364
33. Garland T., Midford P.E., and Ives A.R. An introduction to phylogenetically based statistical methods, with a new method for confidence intervals on ancestral states. Am. Zool. 39 (1999) 374-388
34. Gaulin S.J.C., and Gaulin C. Behavioral ecology of Alouatta seniculus in Andean cloud forest. Int. J. Primatol. 3 1 (1982) 1-32
35. Gaulin S.J.C., and Sailer L.D. Are females the ecological sex?. Am. Anthropol. 87 1 (1985) 111
36. Gerstner G.E., and Gerstein J.B. Chewing rate allometry among mammals. J. Mammal. 89 4 (2008) 1020-1030
37. Gingerich P.D., Smith B.H., and Rosenberg K. Allometric scaling in the dentition of primates and prediction of body weight from tooth size in fossils. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 58 (1982) 81-100
38. Gittens S.P., and Raemaekers J.J. Siamang, lar and agile gibbons. In: Chivers D.J. (Ed). Malayan Forest Primates. Ten Years' Study in Tropical Rain Forest (1980), Plenum Press, New York 63-105
39. Gould S.J. On the scaling of tooth size in mammals. Am. Zool. 15 (1975) 351-362
40. Gross J.E., Shipley L.A., Hobbs N.T., Spalinger D.E., and Wunder B.A. Functional response of herbivores in food-concentrated patches: test of a mechanistic model. Ecology 74 3 (1993) 778-791
41. Gursky, S.L., 19 97. Modeling maternal time budgets: the impact of lactation and infant transport on the time budgets of the Spectral Tarsiers, Tarsius spectrum. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Stony Brook University.
42. Hanya G. Diet of a Japanese macaque troop in the coniferous forest of Yakushima. Int. J. Primatol. 25 (2004) 55-69
43. Hill, R.A., 1999. Ecological and demographic determinants of time budgets in baboons: implications for cross-populational models of baboon socioecology. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Liverpool.
44. Hiiemae K. Mammalian mastication: a review of the activity of jaw muscles and the movements they produce in chewing. In: Butler P.M., and Joysey K. (Eds). Development, Function and Evolution of Teeth (1978), Academic Press, London 359-398
45. Hobbs N.T., Gross J.E., Shipley L.A., Spalinger D.E., and Wunder B.A. Herbivore functional response in heterogeneous environments. Ecology 84 (2003) 666-681
46. Hunt, K.D., 1989. Positional behavior in Pan troglodytes at the Mahale Mountains and the Gombe Stream National Parks, Tanzania. PhD, University of Michigan.
47. Hylander W.L. The functional significance of primate mandibular form. J. Morphol. 160 (1979) 223-240
48. Hylander W.L. Mandibular function and biomechanical stress and scaling. Am. Zool. 25 (1985) 315-330
49. Hylander W.L., Ravosa M.J., and Ross C.F. Jaw muscle recruitment patterns during mastication in anthropoids and prosimians. In: Anapol F., German R.Z., and Jablonski N.G. (Eds). Shaping Primate Evolution (2004), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 229-257
50. Inoue T., Kato T., Masuda Y., Nakamura T., Kawamura Y., and Morimoto T. Modifications of masticatory behavior after trigeminal deafferentation in the rabbit. Exp. Brain Res. 74 3 (1989) 579
51. Iwamoto T., and Dunbar R.I.M. Thermoregulation, habitat quality and the behavioural ecology of gelada baboons. J. Anim. Ecol. 52 (1983) 357-366
52. Janson C. Aggressive competition and individual food consumption in wild brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 18 (1985) 125-138
53. Jeschke J.M., and Tollrian R. Predicting herbivore feeding times. Ethology 111 2 (2005) 187
54. Kaplan B.A., and Moermond T.C. Foraging ecology of the mountain monkey (Cercopithecus l'hoesti): implications for its evolutionary history and use of disturbed forest. Am. J. Primatol. 50 (2000) 227-245
55. Kay, R.F., 1973. Mastication, molar tooth structure and diet in primates. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University.
56. Kay R.F. Allometry and early hominids. Science 189 (1975) 61-63
57. Kay R.F. The functional adaptations of primate molar teeth. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 43 (1975) 195-216
58. Kay R.F. The evolution of molar occlusion in Cercopithecidae and early catarrhines. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 46 (1977) 327-352
59. Kay R.F. Dental evidence for the diet of Australopithecus. Ann. Rev. Anthropol. 14 (1985) 315-341
60. Kay R.F., and Hylander W.L. The dental structure of mammalian folivores with special reference to Primates and Phalangeroidea (Marsupialia). In: Montgomery G.G. (Ed). The Biology of Arboreal Folivores (1978), Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC 173-191
61. Kelley E., and Mayor M.I. Preliminary study of the silky sifaka (Propithecus diadema candidus) in northeast Madagascar. Lemur News 7 (2002) 16-18
62. Kinnaird, M.F., 1990. Behavioral and demographic responses to habitat change by the Tana River crested mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus galeritus). University of Florida.
63. Koenig A., Borries C., Chalise M.K., and Winkler P. Ecology, nutrition, and timing of reproductive events in an Asian primate, the Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus). J. Zool. 243 (1997) 215-235
64. Korstjens A.H., and Dunbar R.I.M. Time constraints limit group sizes and distribution in Red and Black-and-White Colobus. Int. J. Primatol. 28 (2007) 551-575
65. Korstjens A.H., Verhoeckx I.L., and Dunbar R.I.M. Time as a constraint on group size in spider monkeys. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 60 (2006) 683-694
66. LaBarbera M. Analyzing body size as a factor in ecology and evolution. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 20 (1989) 97-117
67. Lehmann J., Korstjens A.H., and Dunbar R.I.M. Time management in Great Apes: implications for gorilla biogeography. Evol. Ecol. Res. 10 (2008) 517-536
68. Li Z.Y., and Rogers E. Habitat quality and time budgets of white-headed langurs in Fusui, China. Int. J. Primatol. 25 (2004) 41-54
69. Liu Z.J., Ikeda K., Harada S., Kasahara Y., and Ito G. Functional properties of jaw and tongue muscles in rats fed a liquid diet after being weaned. J. Dent. Res. 77 2 (1998) 366-376
70. Lucas P.W. Dental Functional Morphology: How Teeth Work (2004), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
71. Lucas P.W., Beta T., Darvell B.W., Dominy N.J., Essackjee H.C., Lee P.K.D., Osorio D., Ramsden L., Yamashita N., and Yuen T.D.B. Field kit to characterize physical, chemical and spatial aspects of potential primate foods. Folia Primatol. 72 1 (2001) 11-25
72. Lucas P.W., Turner I.M., Dominy N.J., and Yamashita N. Mechanical defences to herbivory. Ann. Bot. 86 (2000) 913-920
73. Luschei E.S., and Goodwin G.M. Patterns of mandibular movement and jaw muscle activity during mastication in the monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 37 5 (1974) 954-966
74. Martin R.D., Genoud M., and Hemelrijk C.K. Problems of allometric scaling analysis: examples from mammalian reproductive biology. J. Exp. Biol. 208 9 (2005) 1731-1747
75. McNab B.K. An analysis of the factors that influence the level and scaling of mammalian BMR. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A. Mol. Integr. Physiol. 151 (2008) 5-28
76. Milton K. The Foraging Strategy of Howler Monkeys: A Study in Primate Economics (1980), Columbia University Press, New York
77. Milton K. Habitat, diet and activity patterns of free-ranging woolly spider monkeys (Brachyteles arachnoids E. Geoffroy 1806). Int. J. Primatol. 5 (1984) 491-514
78. Morimoto T., Inoue T., Masuda Y., and Nagashima T. Sensory components facilitating jaw-closing muscle activities in the rabbit. Exp. Brain Res. 76 (1989) 424-440
79. Nagy K.A. Food requirements of wild animals: predictive equations for free-living mammals, reptiles and birds. Nutr. Abs. Rev. B. 71 10 (2001) 1R-12R
80. Nagy K.A., and Milton K. Energy metabolism and food consumption by wild Howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata). Ecology 60 (1979) 475-480
81. Nakagawa N. Activity budget and diet of patas monkeys in Kala Maloue National Park, Cameroon: a preliminary report. Primates 30 (1989) 27-34
82. Nakagawa N. Determinants of the dramatic seasonal changes in the intake of energy and protein by Japanese monkeys in a cool temperate forest. Am. J. Primatol. 41 (1997) 267-288
83. Nash L.T. Vertical clingers and sleepers: seasonal influences on the activities and substrate use of Lepilemur leucopus at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. Folia Primatol. 69 S1 (1998) 204-217
84. Nekaris K.A.I. Activity budget and positional behavior of the Mysore Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus): implications for slow climbing locomotion. Folia Primatol. 72 4 (2001) 228-241
85. Nowak R.M. Walker's Mammals of the World. fifth ed. vol. II (1991), Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
86. O'Brien T.G., and Kinnaird M.F. Behavior, diet, and movements of the Sulawesi crested black macaque (Macaca nigra). Int. J. Primatol. 18 (1997) 321-351
87. Oates J. The diet of the olive colobus monkey, Procolobus verus, in Sierra Leone. Int. J. Primatol. 9 (1988) 457-478
88. Oron U., and Crompton A.W. A cineradiographic and electromyographic study of mastication in Tenrec ecaudatus. J. Morphol. 185 (1985) 155-182
89. Overdorff D.J., Strait S.G., and Telo A. Seasonal variation in activity and diet in a small-bodied folivorous primate, Hapalemur griseus, in southeastern Madagascar. Am. J. Primatol. 43 (1997) 211-223
90. Pavelka M.S.M., and Knopff K.H. Diet and activity in Black Howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) in southern Belize: does degree of frugivory influence activity level?. Primates 45 (2004) 105-111
91. Peetz A. Ecology and social organization of the bearded saki Chiropotes satanus chiropotes (Primates: Pitheciinae) in Venezuela. Ecotrop. Monogr. 1 (2001) 1-170
92. Perry, J.M.G., Hartstone-Rose, A., 2007. Masticatory anatomy of strepsirrhines: selection for stretch or strength? Program of the 8th International Congress of Vertebrate Morphology, 95.
93. Peters R.H. The Ecological Implications of Body Size (1983), Cambridge University Press, New York
94. Peyron M.-A., Blanc O., Lund J.P., and Woda A. Influence of age on adaptability of human mastication. J. Neurophysiol. 92 2 (2004) 773-779
95. Peyron M., Lassauzay C., and Woda A. Effects of increased hardness on jaw movement and muscle activity during chewing of visco-elastic model foods. Exp. Brain Res. 142 (2002) 41-51
96. Pilbeam D., and Gould S.J. Size and scaling in human evolution. Science 186 (1974) 892-901
97. Plesh O., Bishop B., and McCall W. Effect of gum hardness on chewing pattern. Exp. Neurol. 92 3 (1986) 502-512
98. Pollock J.I. The ecology and sociology of feeding in Indri indri. In: Clutton-Brock T.H. (Ed). Primate Ecology: Studies of Feeding and Ranging Behaviour in Lemurs, Monkeys and Apes (1977), Academic Press, London 37-69
99. Porter L.M. Dietary differences among sympatric Callitrichinae in Northern Bolivia: Callimico goeldii, Saguinus fuscicollis and S. labiatus. Int. J. Primatol. 22 (2001) 961-992
100. Porter L.M. Differences in forest utilization and activity patterns among three sympatric callitrichines: Callimico goeldii, Saguinus fuscicollis, and Saguinus labiatus. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 124 (2004) 139-153
101. Poulsen J.R., Clark C.J., and Smith T.B. Seasonal variation in the feeding ecology of the grey-cheeked mangabey (Lophocebus albigena) in Cameroon. Am. J. Primatol. 54 (2001) 91-105
102. Prinz J.F., and Lucas P.W. An optimization model for mastication and swallowing in mammals. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 264 (1997) 1715-1721
103. Raemaekers J. Ecology of sympatric gibbons. Folia Primatol. 31 (1979) 227-245
104. Raemaekers J.J., and Chivers D.J. Socio-ecology of Malayan forest primates. In: Chivers D.J. (Ed). Malayan Forest Primates: Ten Years' Study in Tropical Rainforest (1980), Plenum Press, New York 279-316
105. Ravosa M.J. Anthropoid origins and the modern symphysis. Folia Primatol. 70 (1999) 65-78
106. Ravosa M.J., Vinyard C.J., Gagnon M., and Islam S.A. Evolution of anthropoid jaw loading and kinematic patterns. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 112 4 (2000) 493-516
107. Richard A.F. The feeding behavior of Propithecus verreauxi. In: Clutton-Brock T.H. (Ed). Primate Ecology: Studies of Feeding and Ranging Behaviour in Lemurs, Monkeys and Apes (1977), Academic Press, London 72-96
108. Robinson J.G. Seasonal variation in the use of time and space by the wedge-capped monkey Cebus olivaceus: implications for foraging theory. Smiths. Contribs. Zool. 431 (1986) 1-60
109. Rose L.M. Behavioral ecology of white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) in Costa Rica. Diss. Abstr. Int. 60 2 (1999) 471
110. Ross C.F. In vivo function of the craniofacial haft: the interorbital "pillar". Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 116 (2001) 108-139
111. Ross C.F., Dharia R., Herring S.W., Hylander W.L., Liu Z.-J., Rafferty K.L., Ravosa M.J., and Williams S.H. Modulation of mandibular loading and bite force in mammals during mastication. J. Exp. Biol. 210 6 (2007) 1046-1063
112. Ross C.F., Eckhardt A., Herrel A., Hylander W.L., Metzger K.A., Schaerlaeken V., Washington R.L., and Williams S.H. Modulation of intra-oral processing in mammals and lepidosaurs. Integr. Comp. Biol. 47 (2007) 118-136
113. Ross C.F., Henneberg M., Ravosa M.J., and Richard S. Curvilinear, geometric and phylogenetic modeling of basicranial flexion: is it adaptive, is it constrained?. J. Hum. Evol. 46 2 (2004) 185-213
114. Ross C.F., Reed D.A., Washington R.L., Eckhardt A., Anapol F., and Shahnoor N. Scaling of chew cycle duration in primates. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 138 1 (2009) 30-44
115. Ruhiyat Y. Socio-ecological study of Presbytis aygula in west Java. Primates 24 (1983) 344-359
116. Rylands A.B. Sympatric Brazilian callitrichids: The black tufted-ear marmoset, Callithrix kuhli, and the golden-headed lion tamarin, Leontopithecus chrysomelas. J. Hum. Evol. 18 (1989) 679-695
117. Sayers K., and Norconk M.A. Himalayan Semnopithecus entellus at Langtang National Park, Nepal: diet, activity patterns, and resources. Int. J. Primatol. 29 (2008) 509-530
118. Schülke O., Chalise M.K., and Koenig A. The importance of ingestion rates for estimating food quality and energy intake. Am. J. Primatol. 68 10 (2006) 951-965
119. Shaffer C.A., and Sussman R.W. Activity budget and feeding ecology of Macaca fascicularis in Mauritius. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. S40 (2005) 188
120. Shipley L.A., Gross J.E., Spalinger D.E., Hobbs N.T., and Wunder B.A. The scaling of intake rate in mammalian herbivores. Am. Nat. 143 6 (1994) 1055-1082
121. Singh M., and Vinathe S. Inter-population differences in the time budgets of bonnet monkeys (Macaca radiata). Primates 31 (1990) 589-596
122. Smith R.J., and Jungers W.L. Body mass in comparative primatology. J. Hum. Evol. 32 (1997) 523-559
123. Snodgrass J.J., Leonard W.R., and Robertson M.L. Primate bioenergetics: an evolutionary perspective. In: Ravosa M.J., and Dagosto M. (Eds). Primate Origins: Adaptations and Evolution (2006), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York 703-737
124. Sokal R.R., and Rohlf F.J. Biometry: The Principles and Practice of Statistics in Biological Research (1995), W.H. Freeman and Co., New York
125. Spalinger D.E., and Hobbs N.T. Mechanisms of foraging in mammalian herbivores: new models of functional response. Am. Nat. 140 2 (1992) 325-348
126. Strier K.B. Activity budgets of woolly spider monkeys, or muriquis. Am. J. Primatol. 13 (1987) 385-395
127. Sussman R.W. Feeding behavior of Lemur catta and Lemur fulvus. In: Clutton-Brock T.H. (Ed). Primate Ecology: Studies of Feeding and Ranging Behaviour in Lemurs, Monkeys and Apes (1977), Academic Press, London 1-36
128. Terborgh J. Five New World Primates: A Study of Comparative Ecology (1983), Princeton University Press, Princeton
129. Thexton A.J., Hiiemae K.M., and Crompton A.W. Food consistency and bite size as regulators of jaw movement during feeding in the cat. J. Neurophysiol. 44 3 (1980) 456-474
130. Vilela S.L., and Faria D.S. Seasonality of the activity pattern of Callithrix penicillata (Primates, Callitrichidae) in the Cerrado (scrub savanna vegetation). Braz. J. Biol. 64 (2004) 363-370
131. Vincent J.F.V., Saunders D.E.J., and Beyts P. The use of stress intensity factor to quantify "hardness" and "crunchiness" objectively. J. Texture Stud. 33 (2002) 149-159
132. Vinyard C.J., and Hanna J. Molar scaling in strepsirrhine primates. J. Hum. Evol. 49 2 (2005) 241-269
133. Warton D.I., Wright I.J., Falster D.S., and Westoby M. Bivariate line-fitting methods for allometry. Biol. Rev. 81 2 (2006) 259-291
134. Watts D.P. Composition and variability of mountain gorilla diets in the Central Virungas. Am. J. Primatol. 7 4 (1984) 323-356
135. Watts D.P. Environmental influences on mountain gorilla time budgets. Am. J. Primatol. 15 3 (1988) 195-211
136. West G.B., and Brown J.H. The origin of allometric scaling laws in biology from genomes to ecosystems: towards a quantitative unifying theory of biological structure and organization. J. Exp. Biol. 208 9 (2005) 1575-1592
137. West G.B., Brown J.H., and Enquist B.J. A general model for the origin of allometric scaling laws in biology. Science 276 (1997) 122-126
138. West G.B., Brown J.H., and Enquist B.J. The fourth dimension of life: Fractal geometry and allometric scaling of organisms. Science 284 (1999) 1677-1679
139. Williams S.H., Wright B., Truong V.D., Daubert C.R., and Vinyard C. Mechanical properties of foods used in experimental studies of primate masticatory function. Am. J. Primatol. 67 (2005) 329-346
140. Wilson E.O. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1975), Harvard University Press, Cambridge
141. Woda A., Foster K., Mishellany A., and Peyron M.A. Adaptation of healthy mastication to factors pertaining to the individual or to the food. Physiol. Behav. 89 1 (2006) 28-35
142. Wrangham R., and Conklin-Brittain N. Cooking as a biological trait. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A. Mol. Integr. Physiol. 136 1 (2003) 35-46
143. Wright P.C. Home range, activity pattern, and agonistic encounters of a group of night monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) in Peru. Folia Primatol. 29 (1978) 43-55
144. Wright P.C. Ecological correlates of monogamy in Aotus and Callicebus. In: Else J., and Lee P.C. (Eds). Primate Ecology and Conservation (1986), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 159-167
145. Yamada Y., and Yamamura K. Possible factors which may affect phase durations in the natural chewing rhythm. Brain Res. 706 2 (1996) 237-242
146. Zhou Q., Wei F., Huang C., Li M., Ren B., and Luo B. Seasonal variation in the activity patterns and time budgets of Trachypithecus francoisi in the Nonggang Nature Reserve, China. Int. J. Primatol. 28 (2007) 657-671
147. Zinner D. Relationship between feeding time and food intake in hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) and the value of feeding time as predictor of food intake. Zoo. Biol. 18 6 (1999) 495-505