Ecosystem feedbacks and cascade processes: Understanding their role in the responses of Arctic and alpine ecosystems to environmental change

Global Change Biology

Volumn 15, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 1153-1172

  Wookey, Philip A ^a   Aerts, Rien ^b   Bardgett, Richard D ^c   Baptist, Florence ^d   Bråthen, Karianne ^e   Cornelissen, Johannes H C ^b   Gough, Laura ^f   Hartley, Iain P ^a   Hopkins, David W ^a,g   Lavorel, Sandra ^d   Shaver, Gaius R ^h  

^a UNIVERSITY OF STIRLING   (United Kingdom)

^b VU UNIVERSITY AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^c LANCASTER UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITÉ JOSEPH FOURIER   (France)

^e UNIVERSITY OF TROMSØ   (Norway)

^f UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT ARLINGTON   (United States)

^g SCOTTISH CROP RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United Kingdom)

^h ECOSYSTEMS CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Alpine; Arctic; Carbon; Ecosystem; Energy; Feedback; Global change; Herbivory; Nitrogen; Plant functional type

Indexed keywords

ALPINE ENVIRONMENT; ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT; CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATE EFFECT; COMMUNITY COMPOSITION; ECOSYSTEM RESPONSE; ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE; FEEDBACK MECHANISM; FUNCTIONAL RESPONSE; GLOBAL CHANGE; GROWTH RESPONSE; PLANT COMMUNITY;

ARCTIC;

EID: 64949117302     PISSN: 13541013     EISSN: 13652486     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01801.x     Document Type: Article

References (218)

1. ACIA (eds Symon C, Arris L, Heal B) (2005) Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - Scientific Report. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
2. Aerts R (1999) Interspecific competition in natural plant communities: mechanisms, trade-offs and plant-soil feedbacks. Journal of Experimental Botany, 50, 29-37.
3. Aerts R (2006) The freezer defrosting: Global warming and litter decomposition rates in cold biomes. Journal of Ecology, 94, 713-724.
4. Aerts R, Chapin FS (2000) The mineral nutrition of wild plants revisited: A re-evaluation of processes and patterns. Advances in Ecological Research, 30, 1-67.
5. Alberton O, Kuyper TW, Gorissen A (2005) Taking mycocentrism seriously: mycorrhizal fungal and plant responses to elevated CO2. New Phytologist, 167, 859-868.
6. Anisimov O, Reneva S (2006) Permafrost and changing climate: The Russian perspective. Ambio, 35, 169-175.
7. Antunez I, Retamosa EC, Villar R (2001) Relative growth rate in phylogenetically related deciduous and evergreen woody species. Oecologia, 128, 172-180.
8. Bardgett RD, Bowman WD, Kaufmann R, Schmidt SK (2005) A temporal approach to linking aboveground and belowground ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 20, 634-641.
9. Bardgett RD, Jones AC, Jones DL, Kemmitt SJ, Cook R, Hobbs PJ (2001) Soil microbial community patterns related to the history and intensity of grazing in sub-montane ecosystems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 33, 1653-1664.
10. Bardgett RD, Wardle DA (2003) Herbivore-mediated linkages between aboveground and belowground communities. Ecology, 84, 2258-2268.
11. Basilier K, Granhall U, Stenstrom TA (1978) Nitrogen-fixation in wet minerotropic moss communities of a sub-arctic mire. Oikos, 31, 236-246.
12. Bassin S, Volk M, Suter M, Buchmann N, Fuhrer J (2007) Nitrogen deposition but not ozone affects productivity and community composition of subalpine grassland after 3yr of treatment. New Phytologist, 175, 523-534.
13. Beniston M (2005) Mountain climates and climatic change: An overview of processes focusing on the European Alps. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 162, 1587-1606.
14. Beringer J, Chapin FS III, Thompson CC, McGuire AD (2005) Surface energy exchanges along a tundra-forest transition and feedbacks to climate. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 131, 143-161.
15. Beyer HL, Merrill EH, Varley N, Boyce MS (2007) Willow on Yellowstone's northern range: Evidence for a trophic cascade? Ecological Applications, 17, 1563-1571.
16. Bilbrough CJ, Welker JM, Bowman WD (2000) Early spring nitrogen uptake by snow-covered plants: A comparison of arctic and alpine plant function under the snowpack. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 32, 404-411.
17. Björk RG, Majdi H, Klemedtsson L, Lewis-Jonsson L, Molau U (2007) Long-term warming effects on root morphology, root mass distribution, and microbial activity in two dry tundra plant communities in northern Sweden. New Phytologist, 176, 862-873.
18. Bliss LC, Svoboda J, Bliss DI (1984) Polar deserts, their plant cover and plant production in the Canadian High Arctic. Holarctic Ecology, 7, 305-324.
19. Bolliger J, Kienast F, Soliva R, Rutherford G (2007) Spatial sensitivity of species habitat patterns to scenarios of land use change (Switzerland). Landscape Ecology, 22, 773-789.
20. Bonan GB, Pollard D, Thompson SL (1992) Effects of boreal forest vegetation on global climate. Nature, 359, 716-718.
21. Bowman WD (2000) Biotic Controls over Ecosystem Response to Environmental Change in Alpine Tundra of the Rocky Mountains. Ambio, 29, 396-400.
22. Bowman WD, Conant RT (1994) Shoot growth dynamics and photosynthetic response to increased nitrogen availability in the alpine willow Salix glauca. Oecologia, 97, 93-99.
23. Bowman WD, Gartner JR, Holland K, Wiedermann M (2006) Nitrogen critical loads for alpine vegetation and terrestrial ecosystem response: Are we there yet? Ecological Applications, 16, 1183-1193.
24. 2 -fixation in alpine tundra: Ecosystem input and variation in fixation rates among communities. Oecologia, 108, 345-350.
25. Bowman WD, Theodose TA, Fisk MC (1995) Physiological and production responses of plant growth forms to increases in limiting resources in alpine tundra: Implications for differential community response to environmental change. Oecologia, 101, 217-227.
26. Bowman WD, Theodose TA, Schardt JC, Conant RT (1993) Constraints of nutrient availability on primary production in two alpine communities. Ecology, 74, 2085-2098.
27. Bråthen KA, Ims RA, Yoccoz NG, Fauchald P, Tveraa T, Hausner VH (2007) Induced shift in ecosystem productivity? Extensive scale effects of abundant large herbivores. Ecosystems, 10, 773-789.
28. Bret-Harte MS, Shaver GR, Zoerner JP et al. (2001) Developmental plasticity allows Betula nana to dominate tundra subjected to an altered environment. Ecology, 82, 18-32.
29. Bryant DM, Holland EA, Seastedt TR, Walker MD (1998) Analysis of litter decomposition in an alpine tundra. Canadian Journal of Botany, 76, 1295-1304.
30. Buxton DR, Marten GC (1989) Forage quality of plant parts of perennial grasses and relationship to phenology. Crop Science, 29, 429-435.
31. Caccianiga M, Luzzaro A, Pierce S, Ceriani RM, Cerabolini B (2006) The functional basis of a primary succession resolved by CSR classification. Oikos, 112, 10-20.
32. Cadisch G, Giller KE (1997) Driven by Nature: Plant Litter Quality and Decomposition. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
33. Cannone N, Sgorbati S, Guglielmin M (2007) Unexpected impacts of climate change on alpine vegetation. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 5, 360-364.
34. Chambers SD, Beringer J, Randerson JT, Chapin FS III (2005) Fire effects on net radiation and energy partitioning: Contrasting responses of tundra and boreal forest ecosystems. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, D09106, doi:.
35. Chapin FS III (1989) The cost of tundra plant structures: Evaluation of concepts and currencies. American Naturalist, 133, 1-19.
36. Chapin FS, BretHarte MS, Hobbie SE, Zhong HL (1996) Plant functional types as predictors of transient responses of arctic vegetation to global change. Journal of Vegetation Science, 7, 347-358.
37. Chapin FS III, Eugster W, McFadden JP, Lynch AH, Walker DA (2000a) Summer differences among arctic ecosystems in regional climate forcing. Journal of Climate, 13, 2002-2010.
38. Chapin FS III, McGuire AD, Randerson J et al. (2000b) Arctic and boreal ecosystems of western North America as components of the climate system. Global Change Biology, 6 (Suppl. 1), 211-223.
39. Chapin FS, Moilanen L, Kielland K (1993) Preferential use of organic nitrogen for growth by nonmycorrhizal arctic sedge. Nature, 361, 150-153.
40. Chapin FS, Sturm M, Serreze MC et al. (2005) Role of land-surface changes in arctic summer warming. Science, 310, 657-660.
41. Clemmensen KE, Michelsen A, Jonasson S, Shaver GR (2006) Increased ectomycorrhizal fungal abundance after long-term fertilization and warming of two arctic tundra ecosystems. New Phytologist, 171, 391-404.
42. Coley PD, Bryant JP, Chapin FS (1985) Resource availability and plant antiherbivore defense. Science, 230, 895-899.
43. Cornelissen JHC (1996) An experimental comparison of leaf decomposition rates in a wide range of temperate plant species and types. Journal of Ecology, 84, 573-582.
44. Cornelissen JHC, Callaghan TV, Alatalo JM et al. (2001) Global change and arctic ecosystems: Is lichen decline a function of increases in vascular plant biomass? Journal of Ecology, 89, 984-994.
45. Cornelissen JHC, Lang SI, Soudzilovskaia NA, During HJ (2007b) Comparative cryptogam ecology: A review of bryophyte and lichen traits that drive biogeochemistry. Annals of Botany, 99, 987-1001.
46. Cornelissen JHC, Quested HM, Gwynn-Jones D et al. (2004) Leaf digestibility and litter decomposability are related in a wide range of subarctic plant species and types. Functional Ecology, 18, 779-786.
47. Cornelissen JHC, van Bodegom PM, Aerts R et al. (2007a) Global negative vegetation feedback to climate warming responses of leaf litter decomposition rates in cold biomes. Ecology Letters, 10, 619-627.
48. Creel S, Winnie J, Maxwell B, Hamlin K, Creel M (2005) Elk alter habitat selection as an antipredator response to wolves. Ecology, 86, 3387-3397.
49. Cripps CL, Eddington LH (2005) Distribution of mycorrhizal types among alpine vascular plant families on the Beartooth Plateau, Rocky Mountains, USA, in reference to large-scale patterns in arctic-alpine habitats. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 37, 177-188.
50. Croll DA, Maron JL, Estes JA, Danner EM, Byrd GV (2005) Introduced predators transform subarctic islands from grassland to tundra. Science, 307, 1959-1961.
51. De Deyn GB, Cornelissen JHC, Bardgett RD (2008) Plant functional traits and soil carbon sequestration in contrasting biomes. Ecology Letters, 11, 516-531.
52. den Herder M, Virtanen R, Roininen H (2004) Effects of reindeer browsing on tundra willow and its associated insect herbivores. Journal of Applied Ecology, 41, 870-879.
53. Díaz S, Hodgson JG, Thompson K et al. (2004) The plant traits that drive ecosystems: Evidence from three continents. Journal of Vegetation Science, 15, 295-304.
54. Díaz S, Lavorel S, De Bello F, Quétier F, Grigulis K, Robson TM (2007a) Incorporating plant functional diversity effects in ecosystem service assessments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 20684-20689.
55. Díaz S, Lavorel S, McIntyre S et al. (2007b) Plant trait responses to grazing - a global synthesis. Global Change Biology, 13, 313-341.
56. Diggle PK (1997) Extreme preformation in alpine Polygonum viviparum: An architectural and developmental analysis. American Journal of Botany, 84, 154-169.
57. Dorrepaal E (2007) Are plant growth-form-based classifications useful in predicting northern ecosystem carbon cycling feedbacks to climate change? Journal of Ecology, 95, 1167-1180.
58. Dorrepaal E, Cornelissen JHC, Aerts R (2007) Changing leaf litter feedbacks on plant production across contrasting sub-arctic peatland species and growth forms. Oecologia, 151, 251-261.
59. Dorrepaal E, Cornelissen JHC, Aerts R, Wallen B, van Logtestijn RSP (2005) Are growth forms consistent predictors of leaf litter quality and decomposability across peatlands along a latitudinal gradient? Journal of Ecology, 93, 817-828.
60. Douma JC, van Wijk MT, Lang SI, Shaver GR (2007) The contribution of mosses to the carbon and water exchange of arctic ecosystems: quantification and relationships with system properties. Plant Cell and Environment, 30, 1205-1215.
61. 2 effluxes in the High Arctic: The role of snow thickness and vegetation type. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 39, 646-654.
62. Epstein HE, Beringer JWA, Gould AH et al. (2004) The nature of spatial transitions in the Arctic. Journal of Biogeography, 31, 1917-1933.
63. Eugster W, Rouse WR, Pielke RA et al. (2000) Land-atmosphere energy exchange in Arctic tundra and boreal forest: Available data and feedbacks to climate. Global Change Biology, 6 (Suppl. 1), 84-115.
64. Euskirchen ES, McGuire AD, Chapin FS (2007) Energy feedbacks of northern high-latitude ecosystems to the climate system due to reduced snow cover during 20th century warming. Global Change Biology, 13, 2425-2438.
65. Euskirchen ES, McGuire AD, Kicklighter DW et al. (2006) Importance of recent shifts in soil thermal dynamics on growing season length, productivity, and carbon sequestration in terrestrial high-latitude ecosystems. Global Change Biology, 12, 731-750.
66. Fabbro T, Körner C (2004) Altitudinal differences in flower traits and reproductive allocation. Flora, 199, 70-81.
67. Fisk MC, Schmidt SK (1995) Nitrogen mineralization and microbial biomass nitrogen dynamics in 3 alpine tundra communities. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 59, 1036-1043.
68. Foley JA, Kutzbach JE, Coe MT, Levis S (1994) Feedbacks between climate and boreal forests during the Holocene epoch. Nature, 371, 52-54.
69. Fontaine S, Barot S (2005) Size and functional diversity of microbe populations control plant persistence and long-term soil carbon accumulation. Ecology Letters, 8, 1075-1087.
70. Forsum Å, Dahlman L, Näsholm T, Nordin A (2006) Nitrogen utilization by Hylocomium splendens in a boreal forest fertilization experiment. Functional Ecology, 20, 421-426.
71. Fortunel C, Garnier E, Joffre R et al. (in press) Leaf traits capture the effects of land use changes and climate on litter decomposability of herbaceous communities across Europe. Ecology.
72. Galen C, Stanton ML (1993) Short-term responses of alpine buttercups to experimental manipulations of growing season length. Ecology, 75, 1546-1557.
73. Garnier E, Cortez J, Billes G et al. (2004) Plant functional markers capture ecosystem properties during secondary succession. Ecology, 85, 2630-2637.
74. Goetz SJ, Bunn A, Fiske G, Houghton RA (2005) Satellite observed photosynthetic trends across boreal North America associated with climate and fire disturbance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 13521-13525.
75. Goetz SJ, Mack MC, Gurney KR, Randerson JT, Houghton RA (2007) Ecosystem responses to recent climate change and fire disturbance at northern high latitudes: Observations and model results contrasting northern Eurasia and North America. Environmental Research Letters, 2, 045031, doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/2/4/045031.
76. Gornall JL, Jónsdóttir IS, Woodin SJ, van der Wal R (2007) Arctic mosses govern below-ground environment and ecosystem processes. Oecologia, 153, 931-941.
77. Gough L, Ramsey EA, Johnson DR (2007) Plant-herbivore interactions in Alaskan arctic tundra change with soil nutrient availability. Oikos, 116, 407-418.
78. 2 production during winter in a Swedish subarctic region: The relative importance of climate and vegetation type. Global Change Biology, 12, 1479-1495.
79. Gunn A, Miller FL, Barry SJ, Buchan A (2006) A near-total decline in caribou on Prince of Wales, Somerset and Russell Islands, Canadian Arctic. Arctic, 59, 1-13.
80. Güsewell S (2004) N: V ratios in terrestrial plants: variation and functional significance. New Phytologist, 164, 243-266.
81. 2: Evidence from simulated turves. Functional Ecology, 18, 304-313.
82. Heimann M, Reichstein M (2008) Terrestrial ecosystem carbon dynamics and climate feedbacks. Nature, 451, 289-292.
83. Higuera PE, Brubaker LB, Anderson PM, Brown TA, Kennedy AT, Hu FS (2008) Frequent fires in ancient shrub tundra: Implications of paleorecords for arctic environment change. PLos ONE, 3, e0001744 doi: 10.1371/ journal.pone.0001744
84. Hobara S, McCalley C, Koba K, Giblin AE, Weiss MS, Gettel GM, Shaver GR (2006) Nitrogen fixation in surface soils and vegetation in an arctic tundra watershed: A key source of atmospheric nitrogen. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 38, 363-372.
85. Hobbie SE (1996) Temperature and plant species control over litter decomposition in Alaskan tundra. Ecological Monographs, 66, 503-522.
86. 2 flux to experimental warming. Ecology, 79, 1526-1544.
87. Hobbie SE, Gough L (2002) Foliar and soil nutrients in tundra on glacial landscapes of contrasting ages in northern Alaska. Oecologia, 131, 453-462.
88. Hobbie SE, Gough L, Shaver GR (2005) Species compositional differences on different-aged glacial landscapes drive contrasting responses of tundra to nutrient addition. Journal of Ecology, 93, 770-782.
89. 15N in symbiotic fungi and plants estimates nitrogen and carbon flux rates in Arctic tundra. Ecology, 87, 816-822.
90. Hobbie SE, Schimel JP, Trumbore SE, Randerson JR (2000) Controls over carbon storage and turnover in high-latitude soils. Global Change Biology, 6, 196-210.
91. Höchtl F, Lehringer S, Konold V (2005) "Wilderness": What it means when it becomes a reality - a case study from the southwestern Alps. Landscape and Urban Planning, 70, 85-95.
92. Hodge A, Campbell CD, Fitter AH (2001) An arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus accelerates decomposition and acquires nitrogen directly from organic material. Nature, 413, 297-299.
93. Högberg MN, Bååth E, Nordgren A, Arnebrant K, Högberg P (2003) Contrasting effects of nitrogen availability on plant carbon supply to mycorrhizal fungi and saprotrophs - a hypothesis based on field observations in boreal forest. New Phytologist, 160, 225-238.
94. Ims RA, Yoccoz NG, Bråthen KA, Fauchald P, Tveraa T, Hausner V (2007) Can reindeer overabundance cause a trophic cascade? Ecosystems, 10, 607-622.
95. IPCC (2007a) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK/New York, NY, USA, 996 pp.
96. IPCC (2007b) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 976 pp.
97. Jackson RB, Canadell J, Ehleringer JR, Mooney HA, Sala OE, Schulze ED (1996) A global analysis of root distributions for terrestrial biomes. Oecologia, 108, 389-411.
98. Jägerbrand AK, Lindblad KEM, Björk RG, Alatalo JM, Molav U (2006) Bryophyte and lichen diversity under simulated environmental change compared with observed variation in unmanipulated alpine tundra. Biodiversity and Conservation, 15, 4453-4475.
99. Jefferies RL, Jano AP, Abraham KF (2006) A biotic agent promotes large-scale catastrophic change in the coastal marshes of Hudson Bay. Journal of Ecology, 94, 234-242.
100. Johansson T, Malmer N, Crill PM, Friborg T, Åkerman JH, Mastepanov M, Christensen TR (2006) Decadal vegetation changes in a northern peatland, greenhouse gas fluxes and net radiative forcing. Global Change Biology, 12, 2352-2369.
101. 2. Nature, 416, 82-83.
102. Kielland K (1997) Role of free amino acids in the nitrogen economy of arctic cryptogams. Ecoscience, 4, 75-79.
103. Kielland K, McFarland JW, Ruess RW, Olson K (2007) Rapid cycling of organic nitrogen in taiga forest ecosystems. Ecosystems, 10, 360-368.
104. Klanderud K, Totland Ø (2005) Simulated climate change altered dominance hierarchies and plant community diversity of an alpine biodiversity-hotspot. Ecology, 86, 2047-2054.
105. Klein JA, Harte J, Zhao X-Q (2007) Experimental warming, not grazing, decreases rangeland quality on the Tibetan Plateau. Ecological Applications, 17, 541-557.
106. Körner C (1999) Alpine Plant Life: Functional Plant Ecology of High Mountain Ecosystems. Springer, Berlin.
107. Körner C, Ohsawa M, Spehn S et al. (2005) Mountain Systems. Chapter 24. In: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Current State and Trends: Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group. Ecosystems and Human Well-being, Vol. 1. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA.
108. Krab EJ, Cornelissen JHC, Lang SI, van Logtestijn RSP (2008) Amino acid uptake among wide-ranging moss species may contribute to their strong position in higher-latitude ecosystems. Plant Soil, 304, 199-208.
109. Kuzyakov Y (2002) Review: Factors affecting rhizosphere priming effects. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 165, 382-396.
110. Lavelle P, Blanchart E, Martin A et al. (1993) A hierarchical model for decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems - application to soils of the humid tropics. Biotropica, 25, 130-150.
111. Lavorel S, Díaz S, Cornelissen JHC et al. (2007) Plant functional types: Are we getting any closer to the Holy Grail? In: Terrestrial Ecosystems in a Changing World (eds Canadell J, Pitelka LF, Pataki D), pp. 171-186. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
112. Lavorel S, Garnier E (2002) Predicting changes in community composition and ecosystem functioning from plant traits: Revisiting the Holy Grail. Functional Ecology, 16, 545-556.
113. Lavorel S, McIntyre S, Landsberg J, Forbes TDA (1997) Plant functional classifications: From general groups to specific groups based on response to disturbance. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 12, 474-478.
114. Leake JR, Johnson D, Donnelly DP, Muckle GE, Boddy L, Read DJ (2004) Networks of power and influence: The role of mycorrhizal mycelium in controlling plant communities and agroecosystem functioning. Canadian Journal of Botany - Revue Canadienne de Botanique, 82, 1016-1045.
115. Liljedahl A, Hinzman L, Busey R, Yoshikawa K (2007) Physical short-term changes after a tussock tundra fire, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Journal of Geophysical Research-Earth Surface, 112, F02S07, doi: 10.1029/ 2006JF000554
116. Lilleskov EA, Hobbie EA, Fahey TJ (2002) Ectomycorrhizal fungal taxa differing in response to nitrogen deposition also differ in pure culture organic nitrogen use and natural abundance of nitrogen isotopes. New Phytologist, 154, 219-231.
117. Lipson DA, Monson RK (1998) Plant-microbe competition for soil amino acids in the alpine tundra: Effects of freeze-thaw and dry-rewet events. Oecologia, 113, 406-414.
118. Lipson DA, Näsholm T (2001) The unexpected versatility of plants: organic nitrogen use and availability in terrestrial ecosystems. Oecologia, 128, 305-316.
119. Lipson DA, Schmidt SK, Monson RK (1999) Links between microbial population dynamics and nitrogen availability in an alpine ecosystem. Ecology, 80, 1623-1631.
120. Lynch AH, Chapin FS, Hinzman LD, Wu W, Lilly E, Vourlitis G, Kim E (1999) Surface energy balance on the arctic tundra: Measurements and models. Journal of Climate, 12, 2585-2606.
121. Mack MC, Schuur EAG, Bret-Harte MS, Shaver GR, Chapin FS III (2004) Ecosystem carbon storage in arctic tundra reduced by long-term nutrient fertilization. Nature, 431, 440-443.
122. Manning P, Newington JE, Robson HR et al. (2006) Decoupling the direct and indirect effects of nitrogen deposition on ecosystem function. Ecology Letters, 9, 1015-1024.
123. McCartney SE, Carey SK, Pomeroy JW (2006) Intra-basin variability of snowmelt water balance calculations in a subarctic catchment. Hydrological Processes, 20, 1001-1016.
124. McFadden JM, Liston GE, Sturm M, Pielke RA Snr, Chapin FS III (2001) Interactions of shrubs and snow in arctic tundra: Measurements and models. In: Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer Schemes and Large-Scale Hydrological Models (eds Dolman H, Pomeroy J, Oki T, Hall A), pp. 317-325. International Association of Hydrological Sciences, Wallingford, UK.
125. Mckane RB, Johnson LC, Shaver GR et al. (2002) Resource-based niches provide a basis for plant species diversity and dominance in arctic tundra. Nature, 415, 68-71.
126. Moen J, Danell O (2003) Reindeer in the Swedish mountains: An assessment of grazing impacts. Ambio, 32, 397-402.
127. Myneni RB, Keeling CD, Tucker CJ, Asrar G, Nemani RR (1997) Increased plant growth in the northern high latitudes from 1981 to 1991. Nature, 386, 698-702.
128. Neff JC, Townsend AR, Gleixner G, Lehman SJ, Turnbull J, Bowman WD (2002) Variable effects of nitrogen additions on the stability and turnover of soil carbon. Nature, 419, 915-917.
129. Nguyen C (2003) Rhizodeposition of organic C by plants: Mechanisms and controls. Agronomie, 23, 375-396.
130. Niemelä P, Chapin FS, Danell K, Bryant JP (2001) Herbivory-mediated responses of selected boreal forests to climatic change. Climatic Change, 48, 427-440.
131. Oksanen L, Fretwell SD, Arruda J, Niemelä P (1981) Exploitation ecosystems in gradients of primary productivity. American Naturalist, 118, 240-261.
132. Olofsson J (2006) Short- and long-term effects of changes in reindeer grazing pressure on tundra heath vegetation. Journal of Ecology, 94, 431-440.
133. Olofsson J, Stark S, Oksanen L (2004) Reindeer influence on ecosystem processes in the tundra. Oikos, 105, 386-396.
134. Overpeck J, Hughen K, Hardy D et al. (1997) Arctic environmental change of the last four centuries. Science, 278, 1251-1256.
135. Parolo G, Rossi G (2008) Upward migration of vascular plants following a climate warming trend in the Alps. Basic and Applied Ecology, 9, 100-107.
136. Pauli H, Gottfried M, Reiter K, Klettner C, Grabherr G (2007) Signals of range expansions and contractions of vascular plants in the high Alps: observations (1994-2004) at the GLORIA master site Schrankogel, Tyrol, Austria. Global Change Biology, 13, 147-156.
137. Paulissen MPCP, van der Ven PJM, Dees AJ, Bobbink R (2004) Differential effects of nitrate and ammonium on three fen bryophyte species in relation to pollutant nitrogen input. New Phytologist, 164, 451-458.
138. Personeni E, Loiseau P (2005) Species strategy and N fluxes in grassland soil - A question of root litter quality or rhizosphere activity? European Journal of Agronomy, 22, 217-229.
139. Polis GA, Sears ALW, Huxel GR, Strong DR, Maron J (2000) When is a trophic cascade a trophic cascade? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 15, 273-275.
140. Post E, Peterson RO, Stenseth NC, McLaren BE (1999) Ecosystem consequences of wolf behavioural response to climate. Nature, 6756, 905-907.
141. Quétier F, Lavorel S, Thuiller W, Davies I (2007a) Plant-trait-based modeling assessment of ecosystem-service sensitivity to land-use change. Ecological Applications, 17, 2377-2386.
142. Quétier F, Thébault A, Lavorel S (2007b) Linking vegetation and ecosystem response to complex past and present land use changes using plant traits and a multiple stable state framework. Ecological Monographs, 77, 33-52.
143. Quested HM, Cornelissen JHC, Press MC et al. (2003) Decomposition of sub-arctic plants with differing nitrogen economies: A functional role for hemiparasites. Ecology, 84, 3209-3221.
144. Racine CH, Johnson LA, Viereck LA (1987) Patterns of vegetation recovery after tundra fires in Northwestern Alaska, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research, 19, 461-469.
145. Read DJ, Duckett JG, Francis R, Ligrone R, Russell A (2000) Symbiotic fungal associations in 'lower' land plants. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B - Biological Sciences, 355, 815-830.
146. Read DJ, Leake JR, Perez-Moreno J (2004) Mycorrhizal fungi as drivers of ecosystem processes in heathland and boreal forest biomes. Canadian Journal of Botany - Revue Canadienne de Botanique, 82, 1243-1263.
147. Rinnan R, Nerg AM, Ahtoniemi P, Suokanerva H, Holopainen T, Kyro E, Baath E (2008) Plant-mediated effects of elevated ultraviolet-B radiation on peat microbial communities of a subarctic mire. Global Change Biology, 14, 925-937.
148. Robson TM, Lavorel S, Clément JC, Le Roux X (2007) Neglect of mowing and manuring leads to slower nitrogen cycling in subalpine grasslands. Soil Biology and Biogeochemistry, 39, 930-941.
149. Saleska SR, Shaw MR, Fischer ML, Dunne JA, Still CJ, Holman ML, Harte J (2002) Plant community composition mediates both large transient decline and predicted long-term recovery of soil carbon under climate warming. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 16, 1055, doi: 10.1029/2001GB001573.
150. Sanz-Elorza M, Dana ED, Gonzalez A, Sobrino E (2003) Changes in the high-mountain vegetation of the central Iberian peninsula as a probable sign of global warming. Annals of Botany, 92, 273-280.
151. Scheffer RA, Aerts R (2000) Root decomposition and soil nutrient and carbon cycling in two temperate fen ecosystems. Oikos, 91, 541-549.
152. Scheffer RA, van Logtestijn RSP, Verhoeven JTA (2001) Decomposition of Carex and Sphagnum litter in two mesotrophic fens differing in dominant plant species. Oikos, 92, 44-54.
153. Schimel JP, Bilbrough C, Welker JA (2004) Increased snow depth affects microbial activity and nitrogen mineralization in two Arctic tundra communities. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 36, 217-227.
154. 2 in arctic soils: Can laboratory and field estimates be reconciled through a simple modeling approach? Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 38, 249-256.
155. Schuur EAG, Crummer KG, Vogel JG, Mack MC (2007) Plant Species Composition and Productivity following Permafrost Thaw and Thermokarst in Alaskan Tundra. Ecosystems, 10, 280-292.
156. Sebastià M-T (2007) Plant guilds drive biomass response to global warming and water availability in subalpine grassland. Journal of Ecology, 44, 158-167.
157. Serreze MC, Walsh JE, Chapin FS III et al. (2000) Observational evidence of recent change in the northern high-latitude environment. Climatic Change, 46, 159-207.
158. Shaver GR, Billings WD (1975) Root production and root turnover in a wet tundra ecosystem, Barrow, Alaska. Ecology, 56, 401-409.
159. Shaver GR, Billings WD, Chapin FS, Giblin AE, Nadelhoffer KJ, Oechel WC, Rastetter EB (1992) Global change and the carbon balance of Arctic ecosystems. Bioscience, 42, 433-441.
160. Shaver GR, Bret-Harte SM, Jones MH, Johnstone J, Gough L, Laundre J, Chapin FS (2001) Species composition interacts with fertilizer to control long-term change in tundra productivity. Ecology, 82, 3163-3181.
161. Shaver GR, Chapin FS III (1986) Effect of fertilizer on production and biomass of tussock tundra, Alaska, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research, 18, 261-268.
162. Shaver GR, Chapin FS III (1991) Production: Biomass relationships and element cycling in contrasting arctic vegetation types. Ecological Monographs, 61, 1-31.
163. Shaver GR, Laundre J (1997) Exsertion, elongation, and senescence of leaves of Eriophorum vaginatum and Carex bigelowii in Northern Alaska. Global Change Biology, 3 (Suppl. 1), 146-157.
164. Shur YL, Jorgenson MT (2007) Patterns of permafrost formation and degradation in relation to climate and ecosystems. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 18, 7-19.
165. Silapaswan CS, Verbyla DL, McGuire AD (2001) Land cover change on the Seward Peninsula: The use of remote sensing to evaluate the potential influences of climate warming on historical vegetation dynamics. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 27, 542-554.
166. Sjögersten S, Wookey PA (2002) Climatic and resource quality controls on soil respiration across a forest-tundra ecotone in Swedish Lapland. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 34, 1633-1646.
167. Solheim B, Endal A, Vigstad H (1996) Nitrogen fixation in Arctic vegetation and soils from Svalbard, Norway. Polar Biology, 16, 35-40.
168. Sørensen T (1941) Temperature relations and phenology of the Northeast Greenland flowering, plants Source. Meddelelser om Grønland, 125, 1-305.
169. Soudzilovskaia NA, Onipchenko VG (2005) Experimental investigation of fertilization and irrigation effects on an alpine heath, northwestern Caucasus, Russia. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 37, 602-610.
170. Soudzilovskaia NA, Onipchenko VG, Cornelissen JHC, Aerts R (2007) Effects of fertilisation and irrigation on 'foliar afterlife' in alpine tundra. Journal of Vegetation Science, 18, 755-766.
171. Srivastava DS, Jefferies RL (1996) A positive feedback: Herbivory, plant
172. Starr G, Oberbauer SF, Pop EW (2000) Effects of lengthened growing season and soil warming on the phenology and physiology of Polygonum bistorta. Global Change Biology, 6, 357-369.
173. Steltzer H, Bowman WD (2005) Litter N retention over winter for a low and a high phenolic species in the alpine tundra. Plant and Soil, 275, 361-370.
174. Stow DA, Hope A, McGuire D et al. (2004) Remote sensing of vegetation and land-cover change in Arctic Tundra Ecosystems. Remote Sensing of Environment, 89, 281-308.
175. Ström L, Ekberg A, Mastepanov M, Christensen TR (2003) The effect of vascular plants on carbon turnover and methane emissions from a tundra wetland. Global Change Biology, 9, 1185-1192.
176. Ström L, Mastepanov M, Christensen TR (2005) Species-specific effects of vascular plants on carbon turnover and methane emissions from wetlands. Biogeochemistry, 75, 65-82.
177. Sturm M, Douglas T, Racine C, Liston GE (2005a) Changing snow and shrub conditions affect albedo with global implications. Journal of Geophysical Research - Biogeosciences, 110, G01004, doi: 10.1029/ 2005JG000013
178. Sturm M, Racine C, Tape K (2001) Climate change - increasing shrub abundance in the Arctic. Nature, 411, 546-547.
179. Sturm M, Schimel J, Michaelson G et al. (2005b) Winter biological processes could help convert arctic tundra to shrubland. BioScience, 55, 17-26.
180. Subke JA, Hahn V, Battipaglia G, Linder S, Buchmann N, Cotrufo MF (2004) Feedback interactions between needle litter decomposition and rhizosphere activity. Oecologia, 139, 551-559.
181. Suding KN, Larson JR, Thorsos E, Steltzer H, Bowman WD (2004) Species effects on resource supply rates: Do they influence competitive interactions? Plant Ecology, 175, 47-58.
182. Sullivan PF, Sommerkorn M, Rueth HM, Nadelhoffer KJ, Shaver GR, Welker JM (2007) Climate and species affect fine root production with long-term fertilization in acidic tussock tundra near Toolik Lake, Alaska. Oecologia, 153, 643-652.
183. Swift MJ, Heal OW, Anderson JM (1979) Decomposition in Terrestrial Ecosystems. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK.
184. Tape K, Sturm M, Racine C (2006) The evidence for shrub expansion in Northern Alaska and the Pan-Arctic. Global Change Biology, 12, 686-702.
185. Tappeiner U, Bayfield N (2002) Management of mountainous areas. In: Land Cover and Land Use - Land Use Management (ed. Verheye W) in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, EOLSS Publishers, Oxford, UK [http://www.eolss.net].
186. Tasser E, Tappeiner U (2002) Impact of land use changes on mountain vegetation. Applied Vegetation Science, 5, 173-184.
187. Terborgh J, Lopez L, Nunez P et al. (2001) Ecological meltdown in predator-free forest fragments. Science, 294, 1923-1926.
188. Theurillat J-P, Guisan A (2001) Potential impact of climate change on vegetation in the European Alps: A review. Climatic Change, 50, 77-109.
189. Thomas BD, Bowman WD (1998) Influence of N-2-fixing Trifolium on plant species composition and biomass production in alpine tundra. Oecologia, 115, 26-31.
190. Throop HL, Lerdau MT (2004) Effects of nitrogen deposition on insect herbivory: Implications for community and ecosystem processes. Ecosystems, 7, 109-133.
191. Tibbett M, Cairney JWG (2007) The cooler side of mycorrhizas: Their occurrence and functioning at low temperatures. Canadian Journal of Botany - Revue Canadienne de Botanique, 85, 51-62.
192. Trueman RJ, Gonzalez-Meler MA (2005) Accelerated belowground C cycling in a managed agriforest ecosystem exposed to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations. Global Change Biology, 11, 1258-1271.
193. Uliassi DD, Ruess RW (2002) Limitations to symbiotic nitrogen fixation in primary succession on the Tanana River floodplain. Ecology, 83, 88-103.
194. van der Wal R, Brooker RW (2004) Mosses mediate grazer impacts on grass abundance in arctic ecosystems. Functional Ecology, 18, 77-86.
195. van der Wal R, Pearce I, Brooker R, Scott D, Welch D, Woodin S (2003) Interplay between nitrogen deposition and grazing causes habitat degradation. Ecology Letters, 6, 141-146.
196. van Wijk MT, Clemmensen KE, Shaver GR et al. (2004) Long-term ecosystem level experiments at Toolik Lake, Alaska, and at Abisko, Northern Sweden: Generalizations and differences in ecosystem and plant type responses to global change. Global Change Biology, 10, 105-123.
197. Villar R, Robleto JR, De Jong Y, Poorter H (2006) Differences in construction costs and chemical composition between deciduous and evergreen woody species are small as compared to differences among families. Plant Cell and Environment, 29, 1629-1643.
198. Vogel CS, Curtis PS, Thomas RB (1997) Growth and nitrogen accretion of dinitrogen-fixing Alnus glutinosa (L) Gaertn under elevated carbon dioxide. Plant Ecology, 130, 63-70.
199. Wahren CHA, Walker MD, Bret-Harte MS (2005) Vegetation responses in Alaskan arctic tundra after 8 years of a summer warming and winter snow manipulation experiment. Global Change Biology, 11, 537-552.
200. Walker DA (2000) Hierarchical subdivision of Arctic tundra based on vegetation response to climate, parent material and topography. Global Change Biology, 6 (Suppl. 1), 19-34.
201. Walker DA, Jia GJ, Epstein HE et al. (2003) Vegetation-soil-thaw-depth relationships along a Low-Arctic bioclimate gradient, Alaska: Synthesis of information from the ATLAS studies. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 14, 103-123.
202. Walker MD, Wahren CH, Hollister RD et al. (2006) Plant community responses to experimental warming across the tundra biome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 1342-1346.
203. Wallenstein MD, McMahon S, Schimel J (2007) Bacterial and fungal community structure in Arctic tundra tussock and shrub soils. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 59, 428-435.
204. Walsh JE, Anisimov O, Hagen JOM et al. (2005) Cryosphere and Hydrology. Chapter 6. In: ACIA, 2005. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, pp. 183-242. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
205. Walther G-R, Beissner S, Burga CA (2005) Trends in the upward shift of alpine plants. Journal of Vegetation Science, 16, 541-548.
206. Wardle DA, Bardgett RD, Klironomos JN, SetäläH, van der Putten WH, Wall DH (2004) Ecological linkages between aboveground and belowground biota. Science, 304, 1629-1633.
207. Weigelt A, Bol R, Bardgett RD (2005) Preferential uptake of soil nitrogen forms by grassland plant species. Oecologia, 142, 627-635.
208. Weintraub MN, Schimel JP (2005) Nitrogen cycling and the spread of shrubs control changes in the carbon balance of arctic tundra ecosystems. Bioscience, 55, 408-415.
209. Weiss M, Hobbie SE, Gettel GM (2005) Contrasting responses of nitrogen-fixation in arctic lichens to experimental and ambient nitrogen and phosphorus availability. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 37, 396-401.
210. Welker JM, Molau U, Parsons AN, Robinson CH, Wookay PA (1997) Responses of Dryas octopetala to ITEX environmental manipulations: A synthesis with circumpolar comparisons. Global Change Biology, 3, 61-73.
211. Wright IJ, Groom PK, Lamont BB et al. (2004) Leaf trait relationships in Australian plant species. Functional Plant Biology, 31, 551-558.
212. Xu XL, Ouyang H, Cao GM, Pei ZY, Zhou CP (2004) Nitrogen deposition and carbon sequestration in alpine meadows. Biogeochemistry, 71, 353-369.
213. Zackrisson O, Deluca TH, Nilsson MC, Sellstedt A, Berglund LM (2004) Nitrogen fixation increases with successional age in boreal forests. Ecology, 85, 3327-3334.
214. Zeller V, Bahn M, Aichner M, Tappeiner U (2000) Impact of land-use change on nitrogen mineralization in subalpine grasslands in the Southern Alps. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 31, 441-448.
215. Zeller V, Bardgett RD, Tappeiner U (2001) Site and management effects on soil microbial properties of subalpine meadows: A study of land abandonment along a north-south gradient in the European Alps. Soil Biology and Biogeochemistry, 33, 639-649.
216. Zielke M, Ekker AS, Olsen RA, Spjelkavik S, Solheim B (2002) The influence of abiotic factors on biological nitrogen fixation in different types of vegetation in the High Arctic, Svalbard. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 34, 293-299.
217. Zimov SA (2005) Pleistocene Park: Return of the Mammoth's Ecosystem. Science, 308, 796-798.
218. Zimov SA, Chuprynin VI, Oreshko AP, Chapin FS III, Reynolds JF, Chapin MC (1995) Steppe-tundra transition: An herbivore-driven biome shift at the end of the Pleistocene. American Naturalist, 146, 765-794.