The heart of the mattel the security oF Women and the security of states

International Security

Volumn 33, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 7-45

  Hudson, Valerie M ^a   Caprioli, Mary ^b   Ballif Spanvill, Bonnie ^a,c   McDermott, Rose ^d   Emmett, Chad F ^a  

^a BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA DULUTH   (United States)

^c Department of Psychology ^*

^d BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 59249108387     PISSN: 01622889     EISSN: 15314804     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/isec.2009.33.3.7     Document Type: Article

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14. Quoted in Andrew Stephen, "Hating Hillary," New Statesman, May 22, 2008, http://www. newstatesman.com/north-america/2008/05/ obama-clinton-vote-usa-media.
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17. We recognize that persons in nearly every society, modern and historical, have found ways to modify their assigned gender. This involves a very small minority of persons, however, with gender assignment being otherwise immutable for the overwhelming majority of society. See Ramaswami Mahalingam, Jana Haritatos, and Benita Jackson, "Essentialism and the Cultural Psychology of Gender in Extreme Son Preference Communities in India," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 77, No. 4 (October 2007), pp. 598-609.
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25. Wrangham and Peterson, Demonic Males, pp. 24-25.
26. Ibid., p. 231.
27. Ibid., p. 173.
28. Ibid., p. 125.
29. Ibid., p. 159.
30. Ibid., p. 146.
31. Barbara Diane Miller, "The Anthropology of Sex and Gender Hierarchies," in Miller, ed., Sex and Gender Hierarchies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 3-31, at p. 22.
32. Kemper, Social Structure and Testosterone.
33. Ibid., p. 109.
34. Thayer, Darwin and International Relations.
35. Wrangham and Peterson, Demonic Males, p. 249.
36. Ibid., p. 233.
37. Thayer, Darwin and International Relations, p. 13.
38. Ibid., p. 76.
39. See also Malcolm Potts and Thomas Hayden, Sex and War: How Biology Explains Warfare and Terrorism and Offers a Path to a Safer World (Dallas, Tex.: BenBella, 2008).
40. Wrangham and Peterson, Demonic Males, p. 125.
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42. Kemper, Social Structure and Testosterone.
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58. Galtung, Peace: Research, Education, Action, p. 80.
59. Ibid., pp. 264-265.
60. Galtung, "Cultural Violence," p. 291.
61. Mary Caprioli, Valerie M. Hudson, Rose McDermott, Bonnie Ballif-Spanvill, Chad F. Emmett, and S. Matthew Stearmer, "The WomanStats Project Database: Advancing an Empirical Research Agenda," Journal of Peace Research (forthcoming).
62. V. Spike Peterson, "Gendered Nationalism: Reproducing 'Us' versus 'Them,'" in Lois Ann Lorentzen and Jennifer Turpin, eds., The Women and War Reader (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 41-49, at pp. 42-43.
63. J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993);
64. J. Ann Tickner, Gendering World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001);
65. Hanna Papanek, "To Each Less Than She Needs, From Each More Than She Can Do: Allocations, Entitlements, and Value," in Irene Tinker, ed., Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 162-181;
66. Mark Tessler and Ina Warriner, "Gender, Feminism, and Attitudes toward. International Conflict: Exploring Relationships with Survey Data from the Middle East," World Politics, Vol. 49, No. 2 (January 1997), pp. 250-281;
67. and Caprioli, "Primed for Violence."
68. Swanee Hunt and Cristina Posa, "Women Waging Peace," Foreign Policy, No. 124 (May/June 2001), pp. 38-47;
69. and Tickner, Gender in International Relations.
70. Michael Bohman, "Predisposition to Criminality: Swedish Adoption Studies in Retrospect," in Gregory R. Bock and Jamie A. Goode, eds., Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behavior (West Sussex, U.K.: John Wiley, 1996), pp. 99-114;
71. Remi J. Cadoret, Leslie D. Leve, and Eric Devor, "Genetics of Aggressive and Violent Behavior," Psychiatric Clinics of North America, Vol. 20, No. 2 (June 1997), pp. 301-322;
72. Remi J. Cadoret, Colleen A. Cain, and Raymond R. Crowe, "Evidence for Gene-Environment Interaction in the Development of Adolescent Antisocial Behavior," Behavior Genetics, Vol. 13, No. 3 (May 1983), pp. 301-310;
73. and Xiaojia Ge, Rand D. Conger, Remi J. Cadoret, Jenae M. Neiderhiser, William Yates, Edward Troughton, and Mark Stewart, "The Developmental Interface between Nature and Nurture: A Mutual Influence Model of Child Antisocial Behavior and Parent Behaviors," Developmental Psychology, Vol. 32, No. 4 (July 1996), pp. 574-589.
74. Gerald R. Patterson, "A Comparison of Models for Interstate War and for Individual Violence," Perspectives on Psychological Science, Vol. 3, No. 3 (May 2008), pp. 203-223.
75. Thayer, Darwin and International Relations, pp. 151-152.
76. Patterson, "A Comparison of Models for Interstate War and Individual Violence."
77. Raymond H. Baillargeon, Mark Zoccolillo, Kate Keenan, Sylvana Côté, Daniel Pérusse, Hong-Xing Wu, Michel Boivin, and Richard E. Tremblay, "Gender Differences in Physical Aggression: A Prospective Population-Based Survey of Children before and after Two Years of Age," Developmental Psychology, Vol. 43, No. 1 (January 2007), pp. 13-26;
78. and Jamie M. Ostrov and Caroline F. Keating, "Gender Differences in Preschool Aggression during Free Play and Structured Interaction: An Observational Study," Social Development, Vol. 13, No. 2 (April 2004), pp. 255-277.
79. Janet S. Hyde, "New Direction in the Study of Gender Similarities and Differences," Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 16, No. 5 (October 2007), pp. 259-263.
80. Bonnie Ballif-Spanvill, Claudia Clayton, Rebecca Nichols, and Rachel Kramer, "Dyad Differences in the Violent and Prosocial Behavior of Same- and Mixed-Set Pairs of Three-Year-Olds," manuscript in preparation.
81. E. Mark Cummings, Marcie C. Goeke-Morey, and Lauren M. Papp, "Everyday Marital Conflict and Child Aggression," Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, Vol. 32 No. 2 (April 2004), pp. 191-202;
82. Jeffrey L. Edleson, "Children's Witnessing of Adult Domestic Violence," Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol. 14, No. 8 (August 1999), pp. 839-870;
83. Sandra A. Graham-Bermann, "The Impact of Woman Abuse on Children's Social Development: Research and Theoretical Perspectives," in George W. Holden, Robert Geffner, and Ernest N. Jouriles, eds., Children Exposed to Marital Violence: Theory, Research, and Applied Issues (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1998), pp. 21-54;
84. and Gayla Margolin and Elana B. Gordis, "The Effects of Family and Community Violence on Children," Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 51 (February 2000), pp. 445-479.
85. Bonnie Ballif-Spanvill, Claudia J. Clayton, and Suzanne B. Hendrix, "Witness and Nonwitness Children's Violent and Peaceful Behavior in Different Types of Simulated Conflict with Peers," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 77, No. 2 (April 2007), pp. 206-215.
86. Robert F. Bornstein, "The Complex Relationship between Dependency and Domestic Violence: Converging Psychological Factors and Social Forces," American Psychologist, Vol. 36, No. 6 (September 2006), pp. 595-606.
87. Bonnie Ballif-Spanvill, Claudia J. Clayton, and Suzanne B. Hendrix, "Gender, Types of Conflict, and Individual Differences in the Use of Violent and Peaceful Strategies among Children Who Have and Have Not Witnessed Interparental Violence," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 73, No. 2 (April 2003), pp. 141-153.
88. Richard A. Fabes, Carol L. Martin, and Laura D. Hanish, "Young Children's Play Qualities in the Same-, Other-, and Mixed-Sex Peer Groups," Child Development, Vol. 74, No. 3 (May 2003), pp. 921-932;
89. and Robert L. Munroe and A. Kimball Romney, "Gender and Age Differences in Same-Sex Aggregation and Social Behaviors: A Four-Culture Study," Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Vol. 37, No. 1 (January 2006), pp. 3-19.
90. Ballif-Spanvill et al., "Dyad Differences in the Violent and Prosocial Behavior of Same- and Mixed-Set Pairs of Three-Year-Olds."
91. Claudia J. Clayton, Sally H. Barlow, and Bonnie Ballif-Spanvill, "Principles of Group Violence with a Focus on Terrorism," in Harold V. Hall and Leighton C. Whitaker, eds., Collective Violence: Effective Strategies for Assessing and Interviewing in Fatal Group and Institutional Aggression (Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 1999), pp. 277-311.
92. Patterson, "A Comparison of Models for Interstate War and for Individual Violence."
93. Ester Boserup, Women's Role in Economic Development (London: Allen and Unwin, 1970).
94. Eva M. Rathgeber, "WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice," Journal of Developing Areas, Vol. 24, No. 4 (1990), pp. 489-502;
95. Martha Chen, "A Matter of Survival: Women's Right to Employment in India and Bangladesh," in Martha C. Nussbaum and Jonathan Glover, eds., Women, Culture, and Development: A Study of Human Capabilities (Oxford.: Clarendon, 1995), pp. 37-60;
96. Jodi L. Jacobson, Gender Bias: Roadblock to Sustainable Development (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, 1992);
97. Amartya Sen, "Women's Survival as a Development Problem," Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 43 (1989), pp. 14-29;
98. and Geeta Chowdery and Sheila Nair, Power, Postcolonialism, and International Relations: Reading Race, Gender, and Class (New York: Routledge, 2002).
99. Ricardo Hausmann, Laura D. Tyson, and Saadia Zahidi, The Global Gender Gap Report, 2007 (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2007), http://www.weforum. org/pdf/gendergap/ report2007.pdf;
100. Andrew D. Mason and Elizabeth M. King, "Engendering Development: Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice," World Bank Policy Research Report (Washington, D.C.: World Bank and Oxford University Press, 2001);
101. and John Hoddinott and Lawrence Haddad, "Does Female Income Share Influence Household Expenditure Patterns?" Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 57, No. 1 (February 1995), pp. 77-97.
102. Duncan Thomas, "Intra-Household Resource Allocation: An Inferential Approach," Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 25, No. 4 (Fall 1990), pp. 635-664;
103. Duncan Thomas, D. Contreras, and Elizabeth Frankenberg, Child Health and the Distribution of Household Resources at Marriage (Los Angeles: RAND and University of California, Los Angeles, 1997);
104. Mason and King, "Engendering Development"; Berta Esteve-Volart, "Sex Discrimination and Growth," IMF Working Paper, No. 00/84 (Washington, D.C.: African Department, International Monetary Fund, 2000);
105. Shireen J. Jejeebhoy, Women's Education, Autonomy, and Reproductive Behavior: Experience from Developing Countries (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995);
106. T. Paul Schultz, "Investments in the Schooling and Health of Women and Men: Quantities and Returns," Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 28, No. 4 (1993), pp. 694-725;
107. Albino Barrera, "The Role of Maternal Schooling and Its Interaction with Public Health Programs in Child Health Production," Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 32, No. 1 (January 1990), pp. 69-91;
108. and Lisa C. Smith and Lawrence Haddad, "Overcoming Child Malnutrition in Developing Countries: Past Achievements and Future Choices," 2020 Vision Briefs, No. 64 (Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, February 2000), http://ifpri.org/2020/BRIEFS/ number64.htm.
109. Daniel Kaufmann, "Challenges in the Next Stage of Corruption," in New Perspectives in Combating Corruption (Washington, D.C.: Transparency International and World Bank, 1998).
110. Mason and King, "Engendering Development."
111. Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Politics: Women's Insight" (Geneva: Inter-Parliamentary Union, January 2000), http://www.ipu.org/PDF/publications/ womeninsight-en.pdf.
112. Swanee Hunt, "Let Women Rule," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 3 (May/June 2007), pp. 109-120.
113. Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989, updated 2001);
114. Elshtain, Women and War;
115. Carol Cohn, "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals," Signs, Vol. 12, No. 4 (Summer 1987), pp. 687-718;
116. V. Spike Peterson, ed., Gendered States: Feminist (Re)Visions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1992);
117. Peterson, "Gendered Nationalism"; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postmodern Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994);
118. Christine Sylvester, Feminist International Relations: An Unfinished Journey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001);
119. Christine Sylvester, "'Progress' as Feminist International Relations," in Frank P. Harvey and Michael Brecher, eds., Critical Perspectives in International Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002), pp. 150-167;
120. Tickner, Gender in International Relations;
121. Tickner, Gendering World Politics;
122. J. Ann Tickner, "Hans Morgenthau's Principles of Political Realism: A Feminist Reformulation," Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3 (December 1988), pp. 429-440;
123. Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland, eds., Gender and International Relations (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991);
124. Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women: A Feminist International Politics (New York: Routledge, 1996);
125. and Marysia Zalewski and Jane L. Parpart, eds., The "Man" Question in International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1998).
126. See also Francis Fukuyama, "Women and the Evolution of World Politics," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 5 (September/ October 1998), pp. 24-40.
127. Hunt and Posa, "Women Waging Peace"; and Natalie Florea Hudson, "Securitizing Women and Gender Equality: Who and What Is It Good For?" paper presented at the International Studies Association, Chicago, Illinois, March 2007.
128. See also Peace Women, http://www.peacewomen.org.
129. J. Ann Tickner, "What Is Your Research Program? Some Feminist Answers to International Relations Methodological Questions," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 49, No. 1 (March 2005), pp. 1-21;
130. V. Spike Peterson, "(On) The Cutting Edge: Feminist Research in International Relations," presentation at the University of Arizona Association for Women Faculty Meeting, Tucson, Arizona, February 1991;
131. Sylvester, "'Progress' as Feminist International Relations";
132. and Jill Steans, "Engaging from the Margins: Feminist Encounters with the 'Mainstream' of International Relations," British Journal of Politics and International Relations, Vol. 5, No. 3 (August 2003), pp. 428-454.
133. See, for example, Lene Hansen, Security as Practice: Discourse Analysis and the Bosnian War (New York: Routledge, 2006);
134. Sandra Whitworth, Men, Militarism, and UN Peacekeeping: A Gendered Analysis (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2004);
135. Dubravka Žarkov, The Body of War: Media, Ethnicity, and Gender in the Break-Up of Yugoslavia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007);
136. and Dyan Mazurana, Angela Raven-Roberts, and Jane Parpare, eds., Gender, Conflict, and Peacekeeping (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005).
137. Sylvester, Feminist International Relations.
138. Mary Caprioli, "Feminist IR Theory and Quantitative Methodology: A Critical Analysis," International Studies Review, Vol. 6, No. 2 (June 2004), pp. 253-269.
139. M. Steven Fish, "Islam and Authoritarianism," World Politics, Vol. 55, No. 1 (October 2002), pp. 4- 37.
140. Mary Caprioli, "Gendered Conflict," Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 37, No. 1 (January 2000), pp. 51-68.
141. Mary Caprioli and Mark A. Boyer, "Gender, Violence, and International Crisis," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 45, No. 4 (August 2001), pp. 503-518.
142. Mary Caprioli, "Gender Equality and State Aggression: The Impact of Domestic Gender Equality on State First Use of Force," International Interactions, Vol. 29, No. 3 (July/September 2003), pp. 195-214.
143. These results were replicated by Erik Melander, "Gender Equality and Interstate Armed Conflict," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 49, No. 4 (December 2005), pp. 695-714.
144. See also Monty G. Marshall and Donna Ramsey, "Gender Empowerment and the Willingness of States to Use Force," unpublished research paper, Center for Systemic Peace, 1999.
145. Mary Caprioli, "Primed for Violence."
146. Mary Caprioli and Peter F. Trumbore, "Human Rights Rogues in Interstate Disputes, 1980-2001," Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 43, No. 2 (March 2006), pp. 131-148;
147. Mary Caprioli and Peter F. Trumbore, "Identifying 'Rogue' States and Testing Their Interstate Conflict Behavior," European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 9, No. 3 (September 2003), pp. 377-406;
148. and Mary Caprioli and Peter F. Trumbore, "Ethnic Discrimination and Interstate Violence: Testing the International Impact of Domestic Behavior," Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 40, No. 1 (January 2003), pp. 5-23.
149. David Sobek, M. Rodwan Abouharb, and Christopher G. Ingram, "The Human Rights Peace: How the Respect for Human Rights at Home Leads to Peace Abroad," Journal of Politics, Vol. 68, No. 3 (August 2006), pp. 519-529.
150. Rose McDermott and Jonathan Cowden, "The Effects of Uncertainty and Sex in a Crisis Simulation Game," International Interactions, Vol. 27, No. 4 (2002), pp. 353-380.
151. Dominic P. Johnson, Rose McDermott, Emily S. Barrett, Jonathan Cowden, Richard Wrangham, Matthew H. McIntyre, and Stephen Peter Rosen, "Overconfidence in Wargames: Experimental Evidence on Expectations, Aggression, Gender, and Testosterone," Proceedings of the Royal Society (Biology), Vol. 273 (June 2006), pp. 2513-2520.
152. Natalie B. Florea, Mark A. Boyer, Scott W. Brown, Michael J. Butler, Magnolia Hernandez, Kimberly Weir, Lin Meng, Paula R. Johnson, Clarisse Lima, and Hayley J. Mayall, "Negotiating from Mars to Venus: Gender in Simulated International Negotiations," Simulation & Gaming, Vol. 34, No. 2 (June 2003), pp. 226-248.
153. Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris, "The True Clash of Civilizations," Foreign Policy, No. 135 (March/April 2003), pp. 63-70;
154. and Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris, Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change around the World (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
155. Martha C. Nussbaum, Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000);
156. and Martha C. Nussbaum, "Human Capabilities, Female Human Beings," in Nussbaum and Glover, Women, Culture, and Development, pp. 61-104.
157. To test the civilizational explanation for state peacefulness, we must first identify a particular identity associated with greater levels of conflict or a lack of state peacefulness. In the early years of the twenty-first century, Islamic civilization - rightly or wrongly - has been singled out for this dubious distinction. See, for example, Lee Harris, Civilization and Its Enemies: The Next Stage of History (New York: Free Press, 2004);
158. Norman Podhoretz, World War IV: The Long Struggle against Islamofascism (New York: Doubleday, 2007);
159. and Oriana Fallaci, The Force of Reason (London: Rizzoli, 2006).
160. Huntington makes particular reference to Islam's "bloody borders" in The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.
161. David L. Cingranelli and David L. Richards, "CIRI Human Rights Data Project," version 2006.10.02, http://www.humanrightsdata.org.
162. Economie Commission for Africa, The African Gender and Development Index (Addis Ababa: Economie Commission for Africa, 2004), http://www.uneca.org/eca-programmes/acgd/ pubIications/agdi-book-final.pdf, 2005.
163. Caprioli et al., "The WomanStats Project Database."
164. The data are freely accessible to anyone with an internet connection, thus facilitating worldwide scholarship on these issues. Contribution of data via remote upload is also possible for approved credentialed sources. See http://www.womanstats.org.
165. Hansen, Security as Practice.
166. Johnson et al., "Overconfidence in Wargames";
167. Caprioli, "Gendered Conflict";
168. Caprioli, "Primed for Violence";
169. Caprioli, "Gender Equality and State Aggression";
170. Melander, "Gender Equality and. Interstate Armed Conflict";
171. and Sobek, Abouharb, and Ingram, "The Human Rights Peace."
172. Bradley Thayer, "Evolutionary Insights into Suicide Terrorism," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, Illinois, August 30-September 2, 2007.
173. Valerie M. Hudson and Andrea Den Boer, Bare Branches: The Security Implications of Asia's Surplus Male Population (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2004).
174. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.
175. Ronald Inglehart, Roberto Foa, Christopher Peterson, and Christian Welzel, "Development, Freedom, and Rising Happiness: A Global Perspective (1981-2007)," Perspectives on Psychological Science, Vol. 3, No. 4 (July 2008), pp. 264-285.