Functional food for exercise performance: Fact or foe?

Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care

Volumn 11, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 774-781

  Deldicque, Louise ^a   Francaux, Marc ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ CATHOLIQUE DE LOUVAIN   (Belgium)

^b NONE   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Beta alanine; Bicarbonate; Branched chain amino acids; Caffeine; Creatine

Indexed keywords

AMINO ACID; BETA ALANINE; BICARBONATE; CAFFEINE; CARBOHYDRATE; CREATINE; GLYCEROL; LEUCINE; MINERAL; PROTEIN; VITAMIN;

ATHLETE; DIET; EXERCISE; FOOD COMPOSITION; FUNCTIONAL FOOD; HUMAN; LIQUID; MACRONUTRIENT; METABOLISM; NUTRITION; PERFORMANCE; REVIEW; SPORT;

AMINO ACIDS, BRANCHED-CHAIN; BETA-ALANINE; BICARBONATES; CAFFEINE; CREATINE; DEHYDRATION; DIETARY PROTEINS; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; DRINKING; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; EXERCISE; GLYCEROL; HUMANS; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; NUTRITIONAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; PHYSICAL ENDURANCE; PSYCHOMOTOR PERFORMANCE;

EID: 55149111578     PISSN: 13631950     EISSN: 15353885     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/MCO.0b013e3283139489     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Maughan RJ. The sports drink as a functional food: formulations for successful performance. Proc Nutr Soc 1998; 57:15-23.
2. Joint Position Statement: nutrition and athletic performance. American College of Sports Medicine, American Dietetic Association, and Dietitians of Canada. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32:2130-2145.
3. Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate intake during exercise and performance. Nutrition 2004; 20:669-677.
4. Saris WH, Tarnopolsky MA. Controlling food intake and energy balance: which macronutrient should we select? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2003; 6:609-613.
5. Hargreaves M, Hawley JA, Jeukendrup A. Preexercise carbohydrate and fat ingestion: effects on metabolism and performance. J Sports Sci 2004; 22:31-38.
6. Hawley JA, Tipton KD, Millard-Stafford ML. Promoting training adaptations through nutritional interventions. J Sports Sci 2006; 24:709-721.
7. Wyss M, Kaddurah-Daouk R. Creatine and creatinine metabolism. Physiol Rev 2000; 80:1107-1213.
8. Hespel P, Op't Eijnde B, Van Leemputte M, et al. Oral creatine supplementation facilitates the rehabilitation of disuse atrophy and alters the expression of muscle myogenic factors in humans. J Physiol 2001; 536:625-633.
9. Preen D, Dawson B, Goodman C, et al. Creatine supplementation: a comparison of loading and maintenance protocols on creatine uptake by human skeletal muscle, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2003; 13:97-111.
10. Louis M, Poortmans JR, Francaux M, et al. Creatine supplementation has no effect on human muscle protein turnover at rest in the postabsorptive or fed states. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2003; 284:E764-E770.
11. Deldicque L, Louis M, Theisen D, et al. Increased IGF mRNA in human skeletal muscle after creatine supplementation. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37:731-736.
12. Deldicque L, Atherton P, Patel R, et al. Effects of resistance exercise with and without creatine supplementation on gene expression and cell signaling in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 2008; 104:371-378.
13. Louis M, Poortmans JR, Francaux M, et al. No effect of creatine supplementation on human myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic protein synthesis after resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2003; 285:E1089-E1094.
14. Hultman E, Soderlund K, Timmons JA, et al. Muscle creatine loading in men. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81:232-237.
15. Francaux M, Poortmans JR. Effects of training and creatine supplement on muscle strength and body mass. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1999; 80:165-168.
16. Volek JS, Duncan ND, Mazzetti SA, et al. Performance and muscle fiber adaptations to creatine supplementation and heavy resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31:1147-1156.
17. Vandenberghe K, Goris M, Van Hecke P, et al. Long-term creatine intake is beneficial to muscle performance during resistance training. J Appl Physiol 1997; 83:2055-2063.
18. Mihic S, MacDonald JR, McKenzie S, Tamopolsky MA. Acute creatine loading increases fat-free mass, but does not affect blood pressure, plasma creatinine, or CK activity in men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32:291-296.
19. Becque MD, Lochmann JD, Melrose DR. Effects of oral creatine supplementation on muscular strength and body composition. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32:654-658.
20. Bemben MG, Lament HS. Creatine supplementation and exercise performance: recent findings. Sports Med 2005; 35:107-125.
21. Kreider RB. Effects of creatine supplementation on performance and training adaptations. Mol Cell Biochem 2003; 244:89-94.
22. Branch JD. Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: a meta-analysis. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2003; 13:198-226.
23. Jager R, Metzger J, Lautmann K, et al. The effects of creatine pyruvate and creatine citrate on performance during high intensity exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2008; 5:4.
24. Cribb PJ, Williams AD, Hayes A. A creatine-protein-carbohydrate supplement enhances responses to resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39:1960-1968.
25. Cribb PJ, Williams AD, Stathis CG, et al. Effects of whey isolate, creatine, and resistance training on muscle hypertrophy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39:298-307.
26. Derave W, Eijnde BO, Hespel P. Creatine supplementation in health and disease: what is the evidence for long-term efficacy? Mol Cell Biochem 2003; 244:49-55.
27. Bassit RA, Curi R, Costa Rosa LF. Creatine supplementation reduces plasma levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and PGE(2) after a half-ironman competition. Amino Acids 2008; 35:425-431. This is the first study to show a beneficial effect of creatine on inflammatory plasma markers after exercise in human.
28. Rawson ES, Conti MP, Miles MP. Creatine supplementation does not reduce muscle damage or enhance recovery from resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res 2007; 21:1208-1213.
29. Op't Eijnde B, Urso B, Richter EA, et al. Effect of oral creatine supplementation on human muscle GLUT4 protein content after immobilization. Diabetes 2001; 50:18-23.
30. Saf dar A, Yardley NJ, Snow R, et al. Global and targeted gene expression and protein content in skeletal muscle of young men following short-term creatine monohydrate supplementation. Physiol Genomics 2008; 32:219-228.
31. Olsen S, Aagaard P, Kadi F, et al. Creatine supplementation augments the increase in satellite cell and myonuclei number in human skeletal muscle induced by strength training. J Physiol 2006; 573:525-534.
32. Deldicque L, Theisen D, Bertrand L, et al. Creatine enhances differentiation of myogenic C2C12 cells by activating both p38 and Akt/PKB pathways. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2007; 293:C1263-C1271. In this in-vitro study, possible mechanisms of action of creatine are presented.
33. Louis M, Van Beneden R, Dehoux M, et al. Creatine increases IGF-I and myogenic regulatory factor mRNA in C(2)C(12) cells. FEBS Lett 2004; 557:243-247.
34. Stavchansky S, Combs A, Sagraves R, et al. Pharmacokinetics of caffeine in breast milk and plasma after single oral administration of caffeine to lactating mothers. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1988; 9:285-299.
35. Bell DG, McLellan TM. Exercise endurance 1, 3, and 6 h after caffeine ingestion in caffeine users and nonusers. J Appl Physiol 2002; 93:1227-1234.
36. Raguso CA, Coggan AR, Sidossis LS, et al. Effect of theophylline on substrate metabolism during exercise. Metabolism 1996; 45:1153-1160.
37. Marsh GD, McFadden RG, Nicholson RL, et al. Theophylline delays skeletal muscle fatigue during progressive exercise. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:876-879.
38. Essig D, Costill DL, Van Handel PJ. Effects of caffeine ingestion on utilization of muscle glycogen and lipid during leg ergometer cycling, Int J Sports Med 1980; 1:86-90.
39. Graham TE. Caffeine and exercise: metabolism, endurance and performance. Sports Med 2001; 31:785-807.
40. Magkos F, Kavouras SA. Caffeine use in sports, phanmacokinetics in man, and cellular mechanisms of action. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2005; 45:535-562.
41. Doherty M, Smith PM. Effects of caffeine ingestion on exercise testing: a meta-analysis. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2004; 14:626-646.
42. Doherty M, Smith PM. Effects of caffeine ingestion on rating of perceived exertion during and after exercise: a meta-analysis. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2005; 15:69-78.
43. Eke-Okoro ST. The H-reflex studied in the presence of alcohol, aspirin, caffeine, force and fatigue. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 1982; 22:579-589.
44. Jacobson BH, Weber MD, Claypool L, Hunt LE. Effect of caffeine on maximal strength and power in elite male athletes. Br J Sports Med 1992; 26:276-280.
45. Supinski GS, Deal EC Jr, Kelsen SG. The effects of caffeine and theophylline on diaphragm contractility. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 130:429-433.
46. Lopes JM, Aubier M, Jardim J, et al. Effect of caffeine on skeletal muscle function before and after fatigue. J Appl Physiol 1983; 54:1303-1305.
47. Kalmar JM, Cafarelli E. Effects of caffeine on neuromuscular function. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87:801-808.
48. Tamopolsky M, Cupido C. Caffeine potentiates low frequency skeletal muscle force in habitual and nonhabitual caffeine consumers. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89:1719-1724.
49. Beck TW, Housh TJ, Schmidt RJ, et al. The acute effects of a caffeine-containing supplement on strength, muscular endurance, and anaerobic capabilities. J Strength Cond Res 2006; 20:506-510.
50. Jacobs I, Pasternak H, Bell DG. Effects of ephedrine, caffeine, and their combination on muscular endurance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35:987-994.
51. Astorino TA, Rohmann RL, Firth K. Effect of caffeine ingestion on one-repetition maximum muscular strength. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 102: 127-132.
52. Haskell CF, Kennedy DO, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB. Cognitive and mood improvements of caffeine in habitual consumers and habitual nonconsumers of caffeine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 179:813-825.
53. Fredholm BB. Astra Award Lecture. Adenosine, adenosine receptors and the actions of caffeine. Pharmacol Toxicol 1995; 76:93-101.
54. Robertson D, Frolich JC, Carr RK, et al. Effects of caffeine on plasma renin activity, catecholamines and blood pressure. N Engl J Med 1978; 298:181-186.
55. Cureton KJ, Warren GL, Millard-Stafford ML, et al. Caffeinated sports drink: ergogenic effects and possible mechanisms, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2007; 17:35-55.
56. Del Coso J, Estevez E, Mora-Rodriguez R. Caffeine effects on short-term performance during prolonged exercise in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40:744-751.
57. Harper AE, Miller RH, Block KP. Branched-chain amino acid metabolism. Annu Rev Nutr 1984; 4:409-454.
58. Greer BK, Woodard JL, White JP, et al. Branched-chain amino acid supplementation and indicators of muscle damage after endurance exercise, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2007; 17:595-607.
59. Blomstrand E. Amino acids and central fatigue. Amino Acids 2001; 20:25-34.
60. Blomstrand E. A role for branched-chain amino acids in reducing central fatigue. J Nutr 2006; 136:5448-5478.
61. May ME, Buse MG. Effects of branched-chain amino acids on protein turnover. Diabetes Metab Rev 1989; 5:227-245.
62. Nair KS, Schwartz RG, Welle S. Leucine as a regulator of whole body and skeletal muscle protein metabolism in humans. Am J Physiol 1992; 263: E928-E934.
63. Matthews DE Observations of branched-chain amino acid administration in humans. J Nutr 2005; 135:15803-15848.
64. Karlsson HK, Nilsson PA, Nilsson J, et al. Branched-chain amino acids increase p70S6k phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle after resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004; 287:E1-E7.
65. Sugawara T, Ito Y, Nishizawa N, Nagasawa T. Supplementation with dietary leucine to a protein-deficient diet suppresses myofibrillar protein degradation in rats. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 2007; 53:552-555.
66. Anthony JC, Yoshizawa F, Anthony TG, et al. Leucine stimulates translation initiation in skeletal muscle of postabsorptive rats via a rapamycin-sensitive pathway. J Nutr 2000; 130:2413-2419.
67. Anthony JC, Anthony TG, Kimball SR, et al. Orally administered leucine stimulates protein synthesis in skeletal muscle of postabsorptive rats in association with increased elF4F formation. J Nutr 2000; 130:139-145.
68. Buse MG, Reid SS. Leucine. A possible regulator of protein turnover in muscle. J Clin Invest 1975; 56:1250-1261.
69. Bolster DR, Vary TC, Kimball SR, Jefferson LS. Leucine regulates translation initiation in rat skeletal muscle via enhanced elF4G phosphorylation. J Nutr 2004; 134:1704-1710.
70. Garlick PJ. The role of leucine in the regulation of protein metabolism. J Nutr 2005; 135:15538-15568.
71. Koopman R, Wagenmakers AJ, Manders RJ, et al. Combined ingestion of protein and free leucine with carbohydrate increases postexercise muscle protein synthesis in vivo in male subjects. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005; 288:E645-E653.
72. Anthony JC, Anthony TG, Kimball SR, Jefferson LS. Signaling pathways involved in translational control of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle by leucine. J Nutr 2001; 131:856S-860S.
73. Kimball SR, Jefferson LS. Regulation of global and specific mRNA translation by oral administration of branched-chain amino acids. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 313:423-427.
74. Proud CG. mTOR-mediated regulation of translation factors by amino acids. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 313:429-436.
75. Fujita S, Dreyer HC, Drummond MJ, et al. Nutrient signalling in the regulation of human muscle protein synthesis. J Physiol 2007; 582:813-823.
76. Dreyer HC, Drummond MJ, Pennings B, et al. Leucine-enriched essential amino acid and carbohydrate ingestion following resistance exercise enhances mTOR signaling and protein synthesis in human muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2008; 294:E392-E400. This is the first study to show an increased mTOR signaling after ingestion of a leucine-enriched nutrient solution in humans.
77. Nobukuni T, Joaquin M, Roccio M, et al. Amino acids mediate mTOR/raptor signaling through activation of class 3 phosphatidylinositol 3OH-kinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:14238-14243.
78. Byfield MP, Murray JT, Backer JM. hVps34 is a nutrient-regulated lipid kinase required for activation of p70 S6 kinase. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:33076-33082.
79. Drummond MJ, Rasmussen BB. Leucine-enriched nutrients and the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin signalling and human skeletal muscle protein synthesis. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2008; 11:222-226. An up-to-date review on the mechanisms of action of leucine in humans.
80. Findlay GM, Yan L, Procter J, et al. A MAP4 kinase related to Ste20 is a nutrient-sensitive regulator of mTOR signalling. Biochem J 2007; 403:13-20.
81. Cook SJ, Morley SJ. Nutrient-responsive mTOR signalling grows on Sterile ground. Biochem J 2007; 403:e1-e3.
82. Knitter AE, Panton L, Rathmacher JA, et al. Effects of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate on muscle damage after a prolonged run. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89:1340-1344.
83. Jowko E, Ostaszewski P, Jank M, et al. Creatine and beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) additively increase lean body mass and muscle strength during a weight-training program. Nutrition 2001; 17:558-566.
84. Gallagher PM, Carrithers JA, Godard MP, et al. Beta-hydroxy-beta-methyl-butyrate ingestion, part I: effects on strength and fat free mass. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32:2109-2115.
85. Wilson GJ, Wilson JM, Manninen AH. Effects of beta-hydroxy-beta-methyl- butyrate (HMB) on exercise performance and body composition across varying levels of age, sex, and training experience: a review. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2008; 5:1.
86. Mannion AF, Jakeman PM, Dunnett M, et al. Carnosine and anserine concentrations in the quadriceps femoris muscle of healthy humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1992; 64:47-50.
87. Harris RC, Marlin DJ, Dunnett M, et al. Muscle buffering capacity and dipeptide content in the thoroughbred horse, greyhound dog and man. Comp Biochem Physiol A 1990; 97:249-251.
88. Harris RC, Dunnett M, Greenhaff PL. Camosine & taurine contents in individual fibres in human vastus lateralis muscle. J Sports Sci 1998; 16:639-643.
89. Harris RC, Talion MJ, Dunnett M, et al. The absorption of orally supplied betaalanine and its effect on muscle camosine synthesis in human vastus lateralis. Amino Acids 2006; 30:279-289.
90. Hill CA, Harris RC, Kim HJ, et al. Influence of beta-alanine supplementation on skeletal muscle camosine concentrations and high intensity cycling capacity. Amino Acids 2007; 32:225-233.
91. Derave W, Ozdemir MS, Harris RC, et al. Beta-alanine supplementation augments muscle camosine content and attenuates fatigue during repeated isokinetic contraction bouts in trained sprinters. J Appl Physiol 2007; 103:1736-1743. A well conducted study testing the effect of beta-alanine on the track and field.
92. Suzuki Y, Ito O, Mukai N, et al. The effect of sprint training on skeletal muscle carnosine in humans, Int J Sport Health Sci 2002; 2:105-110.
93. Talion MJ, Harris RC, Boobis LH, et al. The camosine content of vastus lateralis is elevated in resistance-trained bodybuilders. J Strength Cond Res 2005; 19:725-729.
94. Parkhouse WS, McKenzie DC, Hochachka PW, Ovalle WK. Buffering capacity of deproteinized human vastus lateralis muscle. J Appl Physiol 1985; 58:14-17.
95. Suzuki Y, Ito O, Mukai N, et al. High level of skeletal muscle carnosine contributes to the latter half of exercise performance during 30-s maximal cycle ergometer sprinting. Jpn J Physiol 2002; 52:199-205.
96. Ponte J, Harris RC, Hill CA, et al. Effect of 14-28 days of beta-alanine supplementation on isometric endurance of the knee extensors. J Sports Sci 2007; 25:344.
97. Ahlborg B, Bergstrom J, Ekelund LG, et al. Muscle metabolism during isometric exercise performed at constant force. J Appl Physiol 1972; 33:224-228.
98. Stout JR, Cramer JT, Mielke M, et al. Effects of twenty-eight days of betaalanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on the physical working capacity at neuromuscular fatigue threshold. J Strength Cond Res 2006; 20:928-931.
99. Kendrick IP, Harris RC, Kim HJ, et al. The effects of 10 weeks of resistance training combined with beta-alanine supplementation on whole body strength, force production, muscular endurance and body composition. Amino Acids 2008; 34:547-554.
100. McNaughton L, Dalton B, Palmer G. Sodium bicarbonate can be used as an ergogenic aid in high-intensity, competitive cycle ergometry of 1 h duration. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1999; 80:64-69.
101. Verbitsky O, Mizrahi J, Levin M, Isakov E. Effect of ingested sodium bicarbonate on muscle force, fatigue, and recovery. J Appl Physiol 1997; 83:333-337.
102. Horswill CA. Effects of bicarbonate, citrate, and phosphate loading on performance, Int J Sport Nutr 1995; 5 (Suppl):S111-S119.
103. Matson LG, Tran ZV. Effects of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on anaerobic performance: a meta-analytic review, Int J Sport Nutr 1993; 3:2-28.
104. Bishop D, Claudius B. Effects of induced metabolic alkalosis on prolonged intermittent-sprint performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37:759-767.
105. Bishop D, Edge J, Davis C, Goodman C. Induced metabolic alkalosis affects muscle metabolism and repeated-sprint ability. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36:807-813.
106. Price M, Moss P, Ranee S. Effects of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on prolonged intermittent exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35:1303-1308.
107. Van Montfoort MC, Van Dieren L, Hopkins WG, Shearman JP. Effects of ingestion of bicarbonate, citrate, lactate, and chloride on sprint running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36:1239-1243.
108. Lindh AM, Peyrebrune MC, Ingham SA, et al. Sodium bicarbonate improves swimming performance, Int J Sports Med 2008; 29:519-523.
109. Artioli GG, Gualano B, Coelho DF, et al. Does sodium-bicarbonate ingestion improve simulated judo performance? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2007; 17:206-217.
110. Tourtellotte WW, Reinglass JL, Newkirk TA. Cerebral dehydration action of glycerol. I. Historical aspects with emphasis on the toxicity and intravenous administration. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1972; 13:159-171.
111. Latzka WA, Sawka MN, Montain SJ, et al. Hyperhydration: thermoregulatory effects during compensable exercise-heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1997; 83:860-866.
112. Latzka WA, Sawka MN, Montain SJ, et al. Hyperhydration: tolerance and cardiovascular effects during uncompensable exercise-heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84:1858-1864.
113. Goutts A, Reaburn P, Mummery K, Holmes M. The effect of glycerol hyperhydration on Olympic distance triathlon performance in high ambient temperatures, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2002; 12:105-119.
114. Goulet ED, Aubertln-Leheudre M, Plante GE, Dionne IJ. A meta-analysis of the effects of glycerol-induced hyperhydration on fluid retention and endurance performance, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2007; 17:391-410.
115. Anderson MJ, Cotter JD, Garnham AP, et al. Effect of glycerol-induced hyperhydration on thermoregulation and metabolism during exercise in heat, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2001; 11:315-333.
116. Hitchins S, Martin DT, Burke L, et al. Glycerol hyperhydration improves cycle time trial performance in hot humid conditions. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1999; 80:494-501.
117. Montner P, Stark DM, Riedesel ML, et al. Preexercise glycerol hydration improves cycling endurance time. Int J Sports Med 1996; 17:27-33.
118. Lyons TP, Riedesel ML, Meuli LE, Chick TW. Effects of glycerol-induced hyperhydration prior to exercise in the heat on sweating and core temperature. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22:477-483.
119. Koenigsberg PS, Martin KK, Hlava HR, Riedesel ML. Sustained hyperhydration with glycerol ingestion. Life Sci 1995; 57:645-653.
120. Easton C, Turner S, Pitsiladis YP. Creatine and glycerol hyperhydration in trained subjects before exercise in the heat, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2007; 17:70-91. In this study, creatine has been originally tested as a potential hyperhydrating agent, whereas it is generally used to increase lean body mass.
121. Marino FE, Kay D, Cannon J. Glycerol hyperhydration fails to improve endurance performance and thermoregulation in humans in a warm humid environment. Pflugers Arch 2003; 446:455-462.
122. Inder WJ, Swanney MP, Donald RA, et al. The effect of glycerol and desmopressin on exercise performance and hydration in triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30:1263-1269.
123. Magal M, Webster MJ, Sistrunk LE, et al. Comparison of glycerol and water hydration regimens on tennis-related performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35:150-156.
124. Wingo JE, Casa DJ, Berger EM, et al. Influence of a pre-exercise glycerol hydration beverage on performance and physiologic function during mountain-bike races in the heat. J Athl Train 2004; 39:169-175.
125. Scheett TP, Webster MJ, Wagoner KD. Effectiveness of glycerol as a rehydrating agent, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2001; 11:63-71.
126. Kavouras SA, Armstrong LE, Maresh CM, et al. Rehydration with glycerol: endocrine, cardiovascular, and thermoregulatory responses during exercise in the heat. J Appl Physiol 2006; 100:442-450.