Broken down by race and gender? sociological explanations of new sources of earnings inequality

Annual Review of Sociology

Volumn 34, Issue , 2008, Pages 237-255

  Leicht, Kevin T ^a  

^a The University of Iowa   (United States)

Author keywords

Gender gap; Race gap; Rising inequality; Skill bias; Workplace inequality

Indexed keywords

EID: 50649093950     PISSN: 03600572     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134627     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Barnum P, Liden RC, DiTomaso N. 1995. Double jeopardy for women and minorities: pay differences with age. Acad. Manag.J. 38(3):863-80
2. Becker GS. 1993. Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
3. Beckman CM, Phillips DJ. 2005. Interorganizational determinants of promotion: client leadership and the attainment of women attorneys. Am. Sociol. Rev. 70:678-701
4. Berman E, Somanathan R, Tan HW. 2005. Is skill-biased technological change here yet? Evidence from Indian manufacturing in the 1990s. World Bank Policy Res. Work. Pap. 3761, World Bank Inst., Financ. Priv. Sect. Div. http://go.worldbank.org/LO2ARRWE00
5. Bernhardt A, Morris M, Handcock MS. 1995. Women's gains or men's losses? A closer look at the shrinking gender gap in earnings. Am. J. Sociol. 101:302-28
6. Bianchi S. 2000. Maternal employment and time with children: dramatic change or surprising continuity? Demography 37:401-14
7. Bielby WT. 2000. Minimizing workplace gender and racial bias. Contemp. Sociol. 29:120-29
8. Blau FD, Kahn LM. 1997. Swimming upstream: trends in the gender wage differential in the 1980s. J. Labor Econ. 15.1-42
9. Blau FD, Kahn LM. 2000. Gender differences in pay.J. Econ. Perspect. 14:75-99
10. Blau FD, Kahn LM. 2003. Understanding international differences in the gender pay gap. J. Labor Econ. 21:106-44
11. Blau FD, Kahn LM. 2007. The gender pay gap: Have women gone as far as they can? Acad. Manag. Perspect. 21:7-23
12. Borjas GJ, Ramey VA. 1994. Time-series evidence on sources of trends in wage inequality. Am. Econ. Rev. 84:10-16
13. Budig MJ, England P. 2001. The wage penalty for motherhood. Am. Sociol. Rev. 66:204-25
14. Cancio AS, Evans TD, Maume DJ Jr. 1996. Reconsidering the declining significance of race: racial differences in early career wages. Am. Sociol. Rev. 61(4):541-56
15. Card D, DiNardo JE. 2002. Skill biased technological change and rising inequality: some problems and puzzles. NBER Work. Pap. 8769, Natl. Bur. Econ. Res. http://www.nber.org/papers/ w8769.pdf
16. Card D, Krueger AB. 1992. School quality and black-white relative earnings: a direct assessment. Q.J.Econ. 107(l):151-200
17. Card D, Lemieux T. 1994. Changing wage structure and black-white wage differentials. Am. Econ. Rev. 84(2):29-33
18. Carrington WJ, McCue K, Pierce B. 1996. Black/white wage convergence: the role of public sector wages and employment. Ind. Labor Relat. Rev. 49(3):456-71
19. Carrington WJ, Troske KR. 1998. Sex segregation in U.S. manufacturing. Ind. Labor Relat. Rev. 51:445-64
20. Charles M, Grusky DB. 2004. Occupational Ghettos: The Worldwide Segregation of Women and Men. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
21. Chiu C, Leicht KT. 1999. When does feminization increase equality? The case of lawyers. Law Soc. Rev. 33:557-93
22. Correll S, Benard S, Paik I. 2007. Getting a job: Is there a modierhood penalty? Am. J. Sociol. 112:1297-338
23. Cotter DA, DeFiore J, HermsenJM, Kowalewski BM, Vanneman R. 1997. Same data, different conclusions: comment on Bernhardt et al. Am.J. Sociol. 102:1143-54
24. Cotter DA, HermsenJM, Ovadia S, Vanneman R. 2001. The glass ceiling effect. Soc. Forces 80:655-81
25. Cotter DA, Hermsen JM, Vanneman R. 1999. Systems of gender, race, and class inequality: multilevel analyses. Soc. Forces 78:433-60
26. Darky WA Jr, Mason PL. 1998. Evidence on discrimination in employment: codes of color, codes of gender. J. Econ. Perspect. 12:63-90
27. DiPrete TA, Goux D, Maurin E, Quesnel-Vallee A. 2006. Work and pay in flexible and regulated labor markets: a generalized perspective on institutional evolution and inequality trends in Europe and the U.S. Res. Soc. Stratif. Mobil. 24:311-32
28. Elman C, O'Rand AM. 2004. The race is to the swift: socioeconomic origins, adult education, and wage attainment. Am. J. Sociol. 110:123-60
29. England P, Budig M, Folbre N. 2002. Wages of virtue: The relative pay of care work. Soc Probl. 49:455-73
30. England P, Farkas G, Kilbourne BS, Dou T. 1988. Explaining occupational sex segregation and wages: findings from a model with fixed effects. Am. Sociol. Rev. 53:544-58
31. England P, Herbert MS, Kilbourne BS, Reid LL, Megdal LM. 1994 . The gendered valuation of occupations and skills: earnings in 1980 census occupations. Soc. Forces 73:65-100
32. Even WE, Macpherson DA. 1993. The decline of private-sector unionism and the gender wage gap.J. Hum. Res. 28:279-96
33. Fernandez RM. 2001. Skill-biased technological change and wage inequality: evidence from a plant retooling. Am. J. Sociol. 107:273-320
34. Filer RK. 1983. Sexual differences in earnings: the role of individual personalities and tastes. J. Hum. Res. 18:82-99
35. Fortin NM, Lemieux T. 1998. Rank regressions, wage distributions, and the gender gap. J. Hum. Res. 33:610-43
36. Galbraith JK. 1998. Created Unequal: The Crisis in American Pay. New York: Free Press
37. Gill AM. 1994. Incorporating the causes of occupational differences in studies of racial wage differentials. J Hum. Res. 29:20-41
38. Glass J. 2004. Blessing or curse? Work-family policies and mother's wage growth. Work Occup. 31:367-94
39. Glass J, Jacobs JA. 2005. Childhood religious conservatism and adult attainment among black and white women. Soc. Forces 83:555-79
40. Gorman EH. 2005. Gender stereotypes, same-gender preferences, and organizational variation in the hiring of women: evidence from law firms. Am. Sociol. Rev. 70:702-28
41. Gornick JC, Jacobs JA. 1998. Gender, the welfare state, and public employment: a comparative study of seven industrialized countries. Am. Sociol. Rev. 63:688-710
42. Grodsky E, Pager D. 2001. The structure of disadvantage: individual and occupational determinants of the black-white wage gap. Am. Sociol. Rev. 66:542-67
43. Hacker JS. 2006. The Great Risk Shift: The Assault on American Jobs, Families, Health Care and Retirement. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
44. Hersch J, Stratton LS. 1997. Housework, fixed effects, and wages of married mothers. J. Hum. Res. 32:285-307
45. Hersch J, Stratton LS. 2000. Household specialization and the male marriage wage premium. Ind. Labor Relat. Rev. 54:78-94
46. HerschJ, Stratton LS. 2002. Housework and wages. J. Hum. Res. 37:217-29
47. Hirschman C, Wong MG. 1984. Socioeconomic gains of Asian Americans, blacks, and Hispanics: 1960-1976. Am. J. Sociol. 90:584-607
48. Holzer HJ. 1998. Employer skill demands and labor market outcomes of blacks and women. Ind. Labor Relat. Rev. 52:82-98
49. Huffman ML. 2004. More pay, more inequality? The influence of average wage levels and the racial composition of jobs on the black-white wage gap. Soc. Sci. Res. 33:498-520
50. Huffman ML, Cohen PN. 2004. Racial wage inequality: job segregation and devaluation across U.S. labor markets. Am. J. Sociol. 109:902-36
51. Hultin M. 2003. Some take the glass escalator, some hit the glass ceiling? Career consequences of occupational segregation. Work Occup. 30:30-61
52. Ibarra H. 1995. Race, opportunity and diversity of social circles in managerial networks. Acad. Manag.J. 38:673-703
53. Jacobs JA. 1993. Theoretical and measurement issues in the study of sex segregation in the workplace: research note. Eur. Social. Rev. 9:325-30
54. Jacobs JA, Steinberg RJ. 1990. Compensating differentials and the male-female wage gap; evidence from the New York State Comparable Worth Study. Soc. Forces 69:439-68
55. Jarrell SB, Stanley TD. 2004. Declining bias and gender wage discrimination? A meta-regression analysis. J. Hum. Res. 39:828-38
56. Kilbourne B, England P, Beron K. 1994. Effects on individual, occupational, and industrial characteristics on earnings: intersections of race and gender. Soc. Forces 72:1149-76
57. Kim M-K, Polachek SW. 1994. Panel estimates of male-female earnings functions. J. Hum. Res. 29:406-28
58. Leicht KT, Fennell ML. 2001. Professional Work. New York: Blackwell
59. Leicht KT, Fitzgerald ST. 2006. Post-Industrial Peasants: The Illusion of Middle Class Prosperity. New York: Worth
60. Leicht KT, Lyman E. 2006. Markets, institutions, and the crisis of professional practice. Res. Soc. Org. 24:17-44
61. Leonard JS. 1996. Wage disparities and affirmative action in the 1980s. Am. Econ. Rev. 86:285-89
62. Lorence J. 1991. Growth in service sector employment and MSA gender earnings inequality: 1970-1980. Soc. Forces 69:763-83
63. Lyon L, Abell T. 1979. Social mobility among young black and white men: a longitudinal study of occupational prestige and income. Pac. Sociol. Rev. 22:201-22
64. Mandel H, Semyonov M. 2005. Family policies, wage structures and gender gaps: sources of earnings inequality in 20 countries. Am. Sociol. Rev. 70:949-67
65. Marini MM, Fan P-L. 1997. The gender gap in earnings at career entry. Am. Sociol. Rev. 62:588-604
66. McCall L. 1998. Spatial routes to gender wage (in)equality: regional restructuring and wage differentials by gender and education. Econ. Geogr. 74:379-404
67. McCall L. 2000. Gender and the new inequality: explaining the college/noncollege wage gap. Am. Sociol. Rev. 65:234-65
68. McCall L. 2001a. Complex Inequality: Gender, Class and Race in the New Economy. New York: Routledge
69. McCall L. 2001b. Sources of racial wage inequality in metropolitan labor markets: Racial, ethnic, and gender differences. Am. Sociol. Rev. 66:520-41
70. Mincer J. 1974. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
71. Morgan LA. 1998. Glass-ceiling effect or cohort effect? A longitudinal study of the gender earnings gap for engineers, 1982 to 1989. Am. Sociol. Rev. 63:479-93
72. Morris M, Western B. 1999. Inequality in earnings at the close of the twentieth century. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 25:623-57
73. Moss P, Tilly C. 2001. Stories Employers Tell: Race, Skill and Hiring in America. New York: Russell Sage Found.
74. Padavic I, Reskin B. 1990. Men's behavior and women's interest in blue-collar jobs. Soc. Probl. 37:613-28
75. Peoples J, Saunders L. 1993. Trucking deregulation and the black/white wage gap. Ind. Labor Relat. Rev. 47:23-35
76. Petersen T, Morgan LA. 1995. Separate and unequal: occupation- establishment sex segregation and the gender wage gap. Am. J. Sociol. 101:329-65
77. Petersen T, Saporta I. 2004. The opportunity structure for discrimination. Am. J. Sociol. 109:852-901
78. Petersen T, Saporta I, Seidel MD. 2000. Offering a job: meritocracy and social networks. Am. J. Sociol. 106:763-816
79. Reskin B. 2003. Including mechanisms in our models of ascriptive inequality: 2002 presidential address. Am. Sociol. Rev. 68:1-21
80. Reskin B, Roos P. 1990. Job Queues, Gender Queues. Philadelphia, PA: Temple Univ. Press
81. Roth LM. 2003. Selling women short: a research note on gender differences in compensation on Wall Street. Soc. Forces 82:783-802
82. Schor J. 1992. The Overworked American. New York: Basic Books
83. Siegel DS. 1999. Skill-Biased Technological Change: Evidence from a Firm-Level Survey. Indianapolis: Upjohn
84. Skocpol T. 2000. The Missing Middle: Working Families and the Future of American Social Policy. New York: Norton
85. Smith RA. 1997. Race, income, and authority at work: a cross-temporal analysis of black and white men (1972-1994). Soc. Probl. 44:19-37
86. Sorensen A. 2000. Toward a sounder basis for class analysis. Am. J. Sociol. 105:1523-58
87. Sullivan T, Warren E, Westbrook JL. 1999. As We Forgive Our Debtors: Bankruptcy and Consumer Credit in America. Washington, DC: Beard Books
88. Sullivan T, Warren E, Westbrook JL. 2000. The Fragile Middle Class: Americans in Debt. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
89. Tam T. 1997. Sex segregation and occupational gender inequality in the United States: evaluation or specialized training? Am. J. Sociol. 102:1652-92
90. Tilly C. 1998. Durable Inequality. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
91. Tomaskovic-Devey D. 1993. The gender and race composition of jobs and the male/female, white/black pay gaps. Soc. Forces 72:45-76
92. Tomaskovic-Devey D, Thomas M, Johnson K. 2005. Race and the accumulation of human capital across the career: a theoretical model and fixed-effects application. Am. J. Sociol. 111:58-89
93. Tomaskovic-Devey D, Zimmer C, Stainback K, Robinson C, Taylor T, McTague T. 2006. Documenting desegregation: segregation in American workplaces by race, ethnicity, and sex, 1966-2003. Am. J. Sociol. 71:565-88
94. Warren E, Tyagi AW. 2003. The Two-Income Trap: Why Middle-Class Mothers & Fathers Are Going Broke. New York: Basic Books
95. Weeden K. 2002. Why do some occupations pay more than others? Social closure and earnings inequality in the United States. Am. J. Sociol. 108:55-101
96. Weeden K, Grusky DB. 2005. The case for a new class map. Am. J. Sociol. 111:141-212
97. Witkowski KM, Leicht KT. 1995. The effects of gender segregation, labor force participation, and family roles on the earnings of young adult workers. Work Occup. 22:48-72
98. Wright EO. 2000. Class, exploitation, and economic rents: reflections on Sorensen's "sounder basis. Am. J. Sociol. 105:1559-71
99. Yamagata H, Yeh KS, Stewman S, Dodge H. 1997. Sex segregation and glass ceilings: a comparative statics model of women's career opportunities in the federal government over a quarter century. Am. J. Sociol. 103:566-632