Treatment-resistant depression: Critique of current approaches

Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry

Volumn 42, Issue 9, 2008, Pages 751-762

  Wijeratne, Chanaka ^a,b   Sachdev, Perminder ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b PRINCE OF WALES HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

Depression; Treatment resistance

Indexed keywords

ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CHLORPROMAZINE; CITALOPRAM; FLUOXETINE; IMIPRAMINE; LIOTHYRONINE; LITHIUM; METHYLPHENIDATE; MIFEPRISTONE; MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR; NEFAZODONE; NIMODIPINE; PHENELZINE; PLACEBO; SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TRANYLCYPROMINE; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

ARTICLE; ATYPICAL DEPRESSION; CHRONIC DEPRESSION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE THERAPY; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; DEPRESSION; DOPAMINERGIC TRANSMISSION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG TOLERANCE; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; MONOTHERAPY; MOOD DISORDER; NEUROPROTECTION; NEUROSIS; PATIENT ATTITUDE; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PERSONALITY DISORDER; PHARMACOGENETICS; PSYCHOTHERAPY; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIAL ASPECT; THERAPY RESISTANCE; TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION; TREATMENT RESISTANT DEPRESSION; TREATMENT RESPONSE; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VAGUS NERVE STIMULATION; VASCULAR DEPRESSION;

ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS; CHRONIC DISEASE; COMBINED MODALITY THERAPY; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; HUMANS; PSYCHOTHERAPY; RECURRENCE; TREATMENT FAILURE;

EID: 49549119585     PISSN: 00048674     EISSN: 14401614     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00048670802277206     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Heimann, H. (1974) Therapy-resistant depressions: Symptoms and syndromes: Contributions to symptomatology and syndromes. Pharmakopsychiatry Neuropsychopharmacol, 7, pp. 139-144.
2. Lehmann, H. (1974) Therapy-resistant depressions: A clinical classification. Pharmakopsychiatry Neuropsychopharmacol, 7, pp. 156-163.
3. Rush, A., Trivedi, M. Wisniewski, S. et al. (2006) Acute and longer-term outcomes in depressed outpatients requiring one or several treatment steps: A STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry, 163, pp. 1905-1917.
4. Glassman, A. and Roose, S. (1990) American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC
5. Petersen, T., Hughes, M. Papakostas, G. et al. (2002) Treatment-resistant depression and axis II comorbidity. Psychother Psychosom, 71, pp. 269-274.
6. Berlim, M. and Turecki, G. (2007) Definition, assessment and staging of treatment-resistant refractory major depression: A review of current concepts and methods. Can J Psychiatry, 52, pp. 46-54.
7. Souery, D., Amsterdam, J. de Montigny, C. et al. (1999) Treatment resistant depression: Methodological overview and operational criteria. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 9, pp. 83-91.
8. Fawcett, J. and Kravitz, H. (1985) Treatment refractory depression, pp. 2-27. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC
9. Thase, M. and Rush, A. (1997) When at first you don't succeed: sequential strategies for antidepressant nonresponders. J Clin Psychiatry, 58, pp. 23-29.
10. Fava, M. (2003) Diagnosis and definition of treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry, 53, pp. 649-659.
11. Wilhelm, K., Mitchell, P., Sengoz, A., Hickie, I., Brodaty, H. and Boyce, P. (1994) Treatment resistant depression in an Australian context II: Outcome of a series of patients. Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 28, pp. 23-33.
12. Nierenberg, A. and White, K. (1990) What next? A review of pharmacologic strategies for treatment resistant depression. Psychopharmacol Bull, 26, pp. 429-460.
13. Nierenberg, A. and Amsterdam, J. (1990) Treatment-resistant depression: definition and treatment approaches. J Clin Psychiatry, 51, pp. 39-47.
14. Thase, M., Friedman, E. and Howland, R. (2001) Management of treatment-resistant depression: Psychotherapeutic perspectives. J Clin Psychiatry, 62, pp. 18-24.
15. Keks, N., Burrows, G. Copolov, D. et al. (2007) Beyond the evidence: Is there a place for antidepressant combinations in the pharmacotherapy of depression?. Med J Aust, 186, pp. 142-144.
16. Walsh, T., Seidman, S., Sysko, R. and Gould, M. (2002) Placebo response in studies of major depression: Variable, substantial and growing. JAMA, 287, pp. 1840-1847.
17. Frank, E., Prien, R. Jarrett, R. et al. (1991) Conceptualization and rationale for consensus definitions of terms in major depressive disorder. remission, recovery, relapse and recurrence. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 48, pp. 851-855.
18. Nierenberg, A. and Wright, E. (1999) Evolution of remission as the new standard in the treatment of depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 60, pp. 7-11.
19. Soloman, D., Leon, A. Endicott, J. et al. (2004) Psychosocial impairment and recurrence of major depression. Compr Psychiatry, 45, pp. 425-430.
20. Trivedi, M., Rush, A. Wisniewski, S. et al. (2006) Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: Implications for clinical practice. Am J Psychiatry, 163, pp. 28-40.
21. Zimmerman, M., Posternak, M., McGlinchey, J., Friedman, M., Attiullah, N. and Boerescu, D. (2006) Validity of a self-report depression symptom scale for identifying remission in depressed outpatients. Compr Psychiatry, 47, pp. 185-188.
22. Zimmerman, M., McGlinchey, J., Posternak, M., Friedman, M., Boerescu, D. and Attiullah, N. (2006) Discordance between self-reported symptom severity and psychosocial functioning ratings in depressed outpatients: implications for how remission from depression should be defined. Psychiatry Res, 141, pp. 185-191.
23. Mulder, R., Joyce, P., Frampton, C., Luty, S. and Sullivan, P. (2006) Six months of treatment for depression: Outcome and predictors of the course of illness. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 163, pp. 95-100.
24. Trivedi, M. (2003) Treatment-resistant depression: New therapies on the horizon. Ann Clin Psychiatry, 15, pp. 59-70.
25. Akiskal, H. and McKinney, W. (1973) Overview of recent research in depression: Integration of ten conceptual models into a comprehensive clinical frame. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 32, pp. 285-305.
26. Klein, D. (1974) Endogenomorphic depression: A conceptual and terminological revision. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 31, pp. 447-454.
27. Parker, G. (2000) Classifying depression: Should paradigms lost be regained. Am J Psychiatry, 157, pp. 1195-1203.
28. VanPraag, H. (1993) Diagnosis, the rate limiting factor of biological research. Neuropsychobiology, 28, pp. 197-206.
29. Klerman, G. (1971) Clinical research in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 24, pp. 305-319.
30. Paykel, E. (1971) Classification of depressed patients: A cluster analysis derived grouping. Br J Psychiatry, 118, pp. 275-288.
31. Thase, M. and Friedman, E. (1999) Is psychotherapy an effective treatment for melancholia and other severe depressive states?. J Affect Disord, 54, pp. 1-19.
32. Winokur, G. (1985) The validity of neurotic-reactive depression: New data and reappraisal. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 42, pp. 1116-1122.
33. Liebowitz, M. and Klein, D. (1979) Hysteroid dysphoria. Psychiatr Clin North Am, 2, pp. 555-575.
34. Rush, A., Trivedi, M. Wisniewski, S. et al. (2006) Bupropion-SR, sertraline, or venlafaxine-XR after failure of SSRIs for depression. N Engl J Med, 354, pp. 1231-1242.
35. Nierenberg, A., Fava, M. Trivedi, M. et al. (2006) A comparison of lithium and T3 augmentation following two failed medication treatments for depression: A STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry, 163, pp. 1519-1530.
36. McGrath, P., Stewart, J. Fava, M. et al. (2006) Tranylcypromine versus venlafaxine plus mirtazapine following three failed antidepressant medication trials for depression: A STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry, 163, pp. 1531-1541.
37. Prudic, J., Sackeim, H. and Devanand, D. (1990) Medication resistance and clinical response to electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatry Res, 31, pp. 287-296.
38. Sobin, C., Prudic, J., Devanand, D., Nobler, M. and Sackeim, H. (1996) Who responds to electroconvulsive therapy? A comparison of effective and ineffective forms of treatment. Br J Psychiatry, 169, pp. 322-328.
39. Thase, M., Friedman, E. Biggs, M. et al. (2007) Cognitive therapy versus medication in augmentation and switch strategies as second-step treatments: A STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry, 164, pp. 739-752.
40. Fava, G., Savron, G. and Grandi, S. (1997) Cognitive-behavioural management of drug resistant major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry, 58, pp. 278-282.
41. Scott, J., Teasdale, J. Paykel, E. et al. (2000) Effects of cognitive therapy on psychological symptoms and social functioning in residual depression. Br J Psychiatry, 177, pp. 440-446.
42. George, M., Rush, A. Marangell, L. et al. (2005) A one-year comparison of vagus nerve stimulation with treatment as usual for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry, 58, pp. 364-373.
43. Sackeim, H., Brannan, S., Rush, A., George, M., Marangell, L. and Allen, J. (2007) Durability of antidepressant response to VNS. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 10, pp. 817-826.
44. Corcoran, C., Thomas, P., Philips, J. and Keane, V. (2006) Vagus nerve stimulation in chronic treatment-resistant depression. Br J Psychiatry, 189, pp. 282-283.
45. O'Reardon, J., Solvason, H. Janicak, P. et al. (2007) Efficacy and safety of transcranial magnetic stimulation in the acute treatment of major depression: A multisite randomized controlled trial. Biol Psychiatry, 62, pp. 1208-1206.
46. Eranti, S., Mogg, A. Pluck, G. et al. (2007) A randomized, controlled trial with 6-month follow-up of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and electroconvulsive therapy for severe depression. Am J Psychiatry, 164, pp. 73-81.
47. Cohen, A., Houck, P., Szanto, K., Dew, M., Gilman, S. and Reynolds, C. (2006) Social inequalities in response to antidepressant treatment in older adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 63, pp. 50-56.
48. Fleck, M., Simon, G., Herrman, H., Bushnell, D., Martin, M. and Patrick, D. (2005) Major depression and its correlates in primary care settings in six countries. Br J Psychiatry, 186, pp. 41-47.
49. (1999) JAMA, 281, pp. 552-557.
50. Jorm, A., Korten, A., Jacomb, P., Christensen, H., Rodgers, B. and Pollitt, P. (1997) 'Mental health literacy': A survey of the public's ability to recognise mental disorders and their beliefs about the effectiveness of treatment. Med J Aust, 166, pp. 182-186.
51. Jorm, A. (2000) Mental health literacy: Public knowledge and beliefs about mental disorders. Br J Psychiatry, 177, pp. 396-401.
52. Jorm, A., Griffiths, K., Christensen, H., Parslow, R. and Rogers, B. (2004) Actions taken to cope with depression at different levels of severity: A community survey. Psychol Med, 34, pp. 293-299.
53. vanSchaik, D., Klijn, A. vanHout, H. et al. (2004) Patient preferences in the treatment of depressive disorder in primary care. Psychiatry Prim Care, 26, pp. 184-189.
54. Cotton, S., Wright, A., Harris, M., Jorm, A. and McGorry, P. (2006) Influence of gender on mental health literacy in young Australians. Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 40, pp. 790-796.
55. Givens, J., Houston, T., Voorhees, BV, Ford, D. and Cooper, L. (2007) Ethnicity and preferences for depression treatment. Psychiatry Prim Care, 29, pp. 182-191.
56. Hull, S., Cornwell, J., Harvey, C., Eldridge, S. and Bare, P. (2001) Prescribing rates for psychotropic medication amongst east London general practices: Low rates where Asian populations are greatest. Fam Pract, 18, pp. 167-173.
57. Hull, S., Aquino, P. and Cotter, S. (2005) Explaining variation in antidepressant prescribing rates in east London: A cross sectional study. Fam Pract, 22, pp. 37-42.
58. Reich, J. and Green, A. (1991) Effect of personality disorders on outcome of treatment. J Nerv Ment Disord, 179, pp. 74-82.
59. Newton-Howes, G., Tyrer, P. and Johnson, T. (2006) Personality disorder and the outcome of depression: Meta-analysis of published studies. Br J Psychiatry, 188, pp. 13-20.
60. Kool, S., Schoevers, R. de Maat, S. et al. (2005) Efficacy of pharmacotherapy in depressed patients with and without personality disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord, 88, pp. 269-278.
61. Hirschfeld, R., Russell, J. Delgado, P. et al. (2002) Predictors of response to acute treatment of chronic and double depression with sertraline and imipramine. J Clin Psychiatry, 59, pp. 669-675.
62. Mulder, R. (2002) Personality pathology and treatment outcome in major depression: A review. Am J Psychiatry, 159, pp. 359-371.
63. Harpole, L., Williams, J. Olsen, M. et al. (2005) Improving depression outcomes in older adults with comorbid medical illness. Gen Hosp Psychiatry, 27, pp. 4-12.
64. Bogner, H., Cary, M. Bruce, M. et al. (2005) The role of medical comorbidity in outcome of major depression in primary care: The PROSPECT study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 13, pp. 861-868.
65. Koenig, H., Johnson, J. and Peterson, B. (2006) Major depression and physical illness trajectories in heart failure and pulmonary disease. J Nerv Ment Dis, 194, pp. 909-916.
66. Papakostas, G., Petersen, T. Iosifescu, D. et al. (2003) Axis III disorders in treatment-resistant major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Res, 118, pp. 183-188.
67. Perlis, R., Iosifescu, D., Alpert, J., Nierenberg, A., Rosenbaum, J. and Fava, M. (2004) Medical comorbidity does not moderate response to augmentation or dose increase among depressed outpatients resistant to fluoxetine 20mg/day. Psychosomatics, 45, pp. 224-229.
68. Gelenberg, A., Kocsis, J., McCullough, J., Ninan, P. and Thase, M. (2006) The state of knowledge of chronic depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 67, pp. 179-184.
69. Michalak, E. and Lam, R. (2002) Breaking the myths: New treatment approaches for chronic depression. Can J Psychiatry, 47, pp. 635-643.
70. Keller, M., McCullough, J. Klein, D. et al. (2000) A comparison of nefazodone, the cognitive behavioral-analysis system of psychotherapy, and their combination for the treatment of chronic depression. N Engl J Med, 342, pp. 1462-1470.
71. de Maat, S., Dekker, J., Schoevers, R. and de Jonghe, F. (2007) Relative efficacy of psychotherapy and combined therapy in the treatment of depression: A meta-analysis. Eur Psychiatry, 22, pp. 1-8.
72. Malhi, G., Parker, G., Crawford, J., Wilhelm, K. and Mitchell, P. (2005) Treatment-resistant depression: Resistant to definition?. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 112, pp. 302-309.
73. Ramana, R., Paykel, E., Cooper, Z., Hayhurst, H., Saxty, M. and Surtees, P. (1995) Remission and relapse in major depression: A two-year prospective follow-up study. Psychol Med, 25, pp. 1161-1170.
74. Ezquiaga, E., Garcia, A., Bravo, F. and Pallares, T. (1998) Factors associated with outcome in major depression: A six-month prospective study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 33, pp. 552-557.
75. Angst, J., Gamma, A. Benazzi, F. et al. (2006) Atypical depressive syndromes in varying definitions. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 256, pp. 44-54.
76. Parker, G. (2001) New' and 'old' antidepressants: All equal in the eyes of the lore?. Br J Psychiatry, 179, pp. 95-96.
77. Danish University Antidepressant Group (1986) Citalopram: Clinical effect profile in comparison with clomipramine. A controlled multicenter study. J Psychopharmacol, 90, pp. 131-138.
78. Joyce, P., Mulder, R., Luty, S., McKenzie, J. and Rae, A. (2003) A differential response to nortriptyline and fluoxetine in melancholic depression: The importance of age and gender. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 108, pp. 20-23.
79. Wijkstra, J., Lijmer, J., Balk, F., Geddes, J. and Nolen, W. (2006) Pharmacological treatment for unipolar psychotic depression: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry, 188, pp. 410-415.
80. Liebowitz, M., Quitkin, F. Stewart, J. et al. (1988) Antidepressant specificity in atypical depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 45, pp. 129-137.
81. Quitkin, F., McGrath, P. Stewart, J. et al. (1990) Atypical depression, panic attacks and response to imipramine and phenelzine: A replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 47, pp. 935-941.
82. Pande, A., Birkett, M. Fechner-Bates, S. et al. (1996) Fluoxetine versus phenelzine in atypical depression. Biol Psychiatry, 40, pp. 1017-1020.
83. Joyce, P., Mulder, R., McKenzie, J., Luty, S. and Cloninger, R. (2004) Atypical depression, atypical temperament and a differential antidepressant response to fluoxetine and nortriptyline. Depress Anxiety, 19, pp. 180-186.
84. Alexopoulos, A., Meyers, B., Young, R., Campbell, S., Silbersweig, D. and Charlson, M. (1997) "Vascular depression" hypothesis. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 54, pp. 915-922.
85. Hickie, I., Scott, E., Mitchell, P., Wilhelm, K., Austin, M. and Bennett, B. (1995) Subcortical hyperintensities on magnetic resonance imaging: Clinical correlates and prognostic significance in patients with severe depression. Biol Psychiatry, 37, pp. 151-161.
86. Steffens, D., Conway, C. Dombeck, C. et al. (2001) Severity of subcortical gray-matter hyperintensity predicts ECT response in geriatric depression. J ECT, 17, pp. 45-49.
87. Simpson, S., Jackson, A. Baldwin, R. et al. (1998) Subcortical hyperintensities in late-life depression: Acute response to treatment and neuropsychological impairment. Int Psychogeriatr, 9, pp. 257-275.
88. Taylor, W., Steffens, D. MacFall, J. et al. (2003) White matter hyperintensity progression and late-life depression outcomes. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 60, pp. 1090-1096.
89. Steffans, D., Pieper, C. Bosworth, H. et al. (2005) Biological and social predictors of long-term geriatric depression outcome. Int Psychogeriatr, 17, pp. 41-56.
90. Taragano, F., Bagnatti, P. and Allegri, R. (2005) A double-blind, randomized clinical trial to assess the augmentation with nimodipine of antidepressant therapy in the treatment of "vascular depression". Int Psychogeriatr, 17, pp. 487-498.
91. Alexopoulos, G., Raue, P. and Arean, P. (2003) Problem-solving therapy versus supportive therapy in geriatric major depression with executive dysfunction. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 11, pp. 46-52.
92. Dunlop, B. and Nemeroff, C. (2007) The role of dopamine in the pathophysiology of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 64, pp. 327-337.
93. Malhi, G. and Berk, M. (2007) Does dopamine dysfunction drive depression?. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 115, pp. 116-124.
94. Ebert, D., Feistel, H., Loew, T. and Pirner, A. (1996) Dopamine and depression-striatal dopamine D2 receptor SPECT before and after antidepressant therapy. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 126, pp. 91-94.
95. Rampello, L., Nicoletti, G. and Raffaele, R. (1991) Dopaminergic hypothesis for retarded depression: A symptom profile for predicting therapeutic responses. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 84, pp. 552-554.
96. Lambert, G., Johansson, M., Agren, H. and Friberg, P. (2000) Reduced brain norepinephrine and dopamine release in treatment refractory depressive illness: Evidence in support of the catecholamine hypothesis of mood disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 57, pp. 787-793.
97. Klimke, A., Larisch, R., Janz, A., Vosberg, H., Muller-Gartner, H. and Gaebel, W. (1999) Dopamine D2 receptor binding before and after treatment of major depression measured by [1231] IBZM SPECT. Psychiatry Res, 90, pp. 91-101.
98. Lavretsky, H., Park, S. Siddarth, P. et al. (2006) Methylphenidate enhanced antidepressant response to citalopram in the elderly: A double-blind, placebo controlled pilot trial. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 14, pp. 181-185.
99. Patkar, A., Masand, P. Pae, C. et al. (2006) A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of augmentation with an extended release formulation of methylphenidate in outpatients with treatment-resistant depression. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 26, pp. 653-656.
100. Ng, B. (2008) Methylphenidate and depression. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 28, pp. 116-117.
101. Inoue, T., Tsuchiya, K. Miura, J. et al. (1996) Bromocriptine treatment of tricyclic and heterocyclic antidepressant-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry, 40, pp. 151-153.
102. Porter, R. and Gallagher, P. (2006) Abnormalities of the HPA axis in affective disorders: Clinical sub-types and potential treatments. Acta Neuropsychiatr, 18, pp. 193-209.
103. Juruena, M., Cleare, A., Bauer, M. and Pariante, C. (2003) Molecular mechanisms of glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity and relevance to affective disorders. Acta Neuropsychiatr, 15, pp. 354-367.
104. Fink, M. (2005) Should the dexamethasone suppression test be resurrected?. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 112, pp. 245-249.
105. Zobel, A., Nickel, T., Sonntag, A., Uhr, M., Holsboer, F. and Ising, M. (2001) Cortisol response in the combined dexamethasone/CRH test as a predictor of relapse in patients with remitted depression: A prospective study. J Psychiatr Res, 35, pp. 83-94.
106. Rush, A., Giles, D. Schlesser, M. et al. (1996) The dexamethasone suppression test in patients with mood disorders. J Clin Psychiatry, 57, pp. 470-484.
107. Nelson, J. and Davis, J. (1997) DST studies in psychotic depression: A meta analysis. Am J Psychiatry, 154, pp. 1497-1503.
108. Casper, R., Kocsis, J. Dysken, M. et al. (1988) Cortisol measures in primary major depressive disorder with hypersomnia or appetite increase. J Affect Disord, 15, pp. 131-140.
109. Ehnvall, A., Sjogren, M., Zachrisson, O. and Agren, H. (2004) HPA axis activation determined by the CRN challenge test in patients with few versus multiple episodes of treatment-refractory depression. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 254, pp. 349-355.
110. Mitchell, P. (1996) Validity of the CORE: I. A neuroendocrinological strategy. Melancholia. A disorder of movement and mood, pp. 138-148. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
111. Modell, S., Lauer, C., Schreiber, W., Huber, J., Krieg, J. and Holsboer, F. (1998) Hormonal response pattern in the combined DEX-CRH test is stable over time in subjects at high familial risk for affective disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 18, pp. 253-262.
112. Binder, E., Salyakina, D. Lichtner, P. et al. (2004) Polymorphisms in FKBP5 are associated with increased recurrence of depressive episodes and rapid response to antidepressant treatment. Nat Genet, 36, pp. 1319-1325.
113. Heim, C., Mletzko, T., Purselle, D., Musselman, D. and Nemeroff, C. (2008) The dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing factor test in men with major depression: Role of childhood trauma. Biol Psychiatry, 63, pp. 398-405.
114. McEwen, B. (2005) Glucocorticoids, depression and mood disorders: structural remodelling in the brain. Metabolism, 54, pp. 20-23.
115. DeBattista, C., Belanoff, J. Glass, S. et al. (2006) Mifepristone versus placebo in the treatment of psychosis in patients with psychotic major depression. Biol Psychiatry, 60, pp. 1343-1349.
116. Malhotra, A., Murphy, G. and Kennedy, J. (2004) Pharmacogenetics of psychotropic drug response. Am J Psychiatry, 161, pp. 780-796.
117. Levinson, D. (2006) The genetics of depression: A review. Biol Psychiatry, 60, pp. 84-92.
118. Anguelova, M., Benkelfat, C. and Turecki, G. (2003) A systematic review of association studies investigating genes coding for serotonin receptors and the serotonin transporter I. Affective disorders. Mol Psychiatry, 8, pp. 574-591.
119. Serretti, A., Cusin, C., Rausch, J., Bondy, B. and Smeraldi, E. (2006) Pooling pharmacogenetic studies on the serotonin transporter: A mega-analysis. Psychiatry Res, 145, pp. 61-65.
120. Murphy, G., Hollander, S., Rodrigues, H., Kremer, C. and Schatzberg, A. (2004) Effects of the serotonin transporter gene promoter polymorphism on mirtazapine and paroxetine efficacy and adverse events in geriatric major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 61, pp. 1163-1169.
121. Kim, H., Lim, S-W Kim, S. et al. (2006) Monoamine transporter gene polymorphisms and antidepressant response in Koreans with late-life depression. JAMA, 296, pp. 1609-1618.
122. Arias, B., Catalan, R., Gasto, C., Gutierrez, B. and Fananas, L. (2003) 5-HTTLPR polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene predicts non-remission in major depression patients treated with citalopram in a 12 week follow up study. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 23, pp. 563-567.
123. Paddock, S., Laje, G. Charney, D. et al. (2007) Association of GRIK4 with outcome of antidepressant treatment in the STAR*D cohort. Am J Psychiatry, 164, pp. 1181-1188.
124. Kondo, D., Speer, M. Krishnan, K. et al. (2007) Association of AGTR1 with 18-month treatment outcome in late-life depression. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 15, pp. 564-572.
125. French, J. (2007) Refractory epilepsy: Clinical overview. Epilepsia, 48, pp. 3-7.