Molecular mechanisms of glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity and relevance to affective disorders

Acta Neuropsychiatrica

Volumn 15, Issue 6, 2003, Pages 354-367

  Juruena, Mario Francisco ^a,b,e   Cleare, Anthony J ^b,c   Bauer, Moisés E ^d   Pariante, Carmine M ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE CIÊNCIAS DA SAÚDE DE PORTO ALEGRE   (Brazil)

^b KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^c SOUTH LONDON AND MAUDSLEY NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^d PONTIFICAL CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF RIO GRANDE DO SUL   (Brazil)

^e NONE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Adrenocorticotropic hormone; Antidepressants; Corticotropin releasing hormone; Cortisol; Cytokines; Glucocorticoid receptor; Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis; Multiple drug resistance (MDR) p glycoprotein; Neuroendocrinology; Psychoneuroimmunology

Indexed keywords

CORTICOTROPIN; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; CYTOKINE; DEXAMETHASONE; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; GLYCOPROTEIN P; NEUROTRANSMITTER;

DEPRESSION; DEXAMETHASONE SUPPRESSION TEST; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; MOOD DISORDER; NEGATIVE FEEDBACK; RECEPTOR SENSITIVITY; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; SECOND MESSENGER; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 0345414102     PISSN: 09242708     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1601-5215.2003.00051.x     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. DE KLOET ER, VREUGDENHIL E, OITZL MS, JOELS M. Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocrinol Rev 1998;19:269-301.
2. PARIANTE CM, MILLER AH. Glucocorticoid receptors in major depression: relevance to pathophysiology and treatment. Biol Psychiatry 2001;49:391-404.
3. GOLD PW, GOODWIN FK, CHROUSOS GP. Clinical and biochemical manifestation of depression: relation to the neurobiology of stress. N Engl J Med 1988;319:413-420.
4. NEMEROFF CB. The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) hypothesis of depression: new findings and new directions. Mol Psychiatry 1996;1:336.
5. KELLNER M, YEHUDA R. Do panic disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder share a common psychoneuroendocrinology? Psychoneuroendocrinology 1999;5:485-504.
6. CLEARE AJ, BLAIR D, CHAMBERS S, WESSELY S. Urinary free cortisol in chronic fatigue syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:641-643.
7. CLEARE AJ, MIELL J, HEAP E et al. Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis function in chronic fatigue syndrome, and the effects of low-dose hydrocortisone therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 2001;86:3545-3554.
8. GOLD PW, CHROUSOS GP. Organization of the stress system and its dysregulation in melancholic and atypical depression: high vs low CRH/NE states. Mol Psychiatry 2002;7:254-275.
9. HOLSBOER F, BARDEN N. Antidepressants and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical regulation. Endocr Rev 1996;17:187-205.
10. OWENS MJ, NEMEROFF CB. The role of CRF in the pathophysiology of affective disorders: laboratory and clinical studies, Vol. 172.New York: John Wiley, 1993.
11. CARROLL BJ, CURTIS GC, DAVIES BM et al. Urinary-free cortisol excretion in depression. J Psychol Med 1976;6:43.
12. RUBIN RT, POLAND RE, LESSER IM, WINSTON RA, BLODGETT ALN. Neuroendocrine aspects of primary endogenous depression. Arch General Psychiatry 1987;44:328-336.
13. SACHAR EJ, HELLMAN L, ROFFWARG HP et al. Disrupted 24-hour patterns of cortisol secretion in psychotic depression. Arch General Psychiatry 1973;28:19.
14. CARROLL J. Clinical applications of the dexamethasone suppression test for endogenous depression. Pharmacopsychiatry 1982;15:19-24.
15. VALE W, SPIESS I, RIVIER C, RIVIER J. Characterization of a 41-residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and p-endorphin. Science 1981;213:1394-1397.
16. GOLD PW, LORIAUX DL, ROY A et al. Responses to corticotrophin-releasing hormone in the hypoercortisolism of depression and Cushing's disease. N Engl J Med 1986;314:1329-1335.
17. HOLSBOER F, CERKEN A, VON BARDELEBEN U et al. Human corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in patients with depression, alcoholism and panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1986;21:601-611.
18. VON BARDELEBEN U, HOLSBOER F. Cortisol response to a combined dexamethasone-hCRH challenge in patients with depression. J Neuroendocrinol 1989;1:485-488.
19. VON BARDELEBEN U, HOLSBOER F. Effect of age upon the cortisol response to human CRH in depressed patients pretreated with dexamethasone. Biol Psychiatry 1991;29:1042-1050.
20. HEUSER I, YASSOURIDIS A, HOLSBOER F. The combined dexamethasone/CRH test: a refined laboratory test for psychiatric disorders. J Psychiatric Res 1994;28:341-356.
21. MEIJER OC, DE LANGE EC M, BREIMER DD, DE BOER AC, WORKEL JO, DE KLOET ER. Penetration of dexamethasone into brain glucocorticoid targets is enhanced in mdrlAP-glycoprotein knockout mice. Endocrinology 1998;139:1789-1793.
22. VON BARDELEBEN U, HOLSBOER F, STALLA GK, MULLER OA. Combined administration of human corticotropin-releasing factor and lysine vasopressin induces cortisol escape from dexamethasone suppression in healthy subjects. Life Sci 1985;37:1613-1619.
23. ORTH DN, KOVACS WJ. The adrenal cortex. In. WILSON JD, FOSTER DW, KRONENBERG HM, LARSEN PR, eds. Williams textbook of endocrinology, 9th edn. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1998:517-664.
24. PARIANTE CM, PAPADOPOULOS AS, POON L et al. A novel prednisolone suppression test for the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Biol Psychiatry 2002;51:922-930.
25. KARSSEN AM, MEIJER OC, VAN DER SANDT IC et al. Multidrug resistance P-glycoprotein hampers the access of cortisol but not of corticosterone to mouse and human brain. Endocrinology 2001;142:2686-2694.
26. NEMEROFF CB, WIDERLOV E, BISSETTE C et al. Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients. Science 1984;226:1342-1344.
27. NEMEROFF CB, OWENS MJ, BISSETTE G, ANDORN AC, STANLEY M. Reduced corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) binding sites in the frontal cortex of suicide victims. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:377-379.
28. RAADSHEER FC, HOOGENDIJK WIG, STAM FC, TILDERS FHJ, SWAAB DF. Increased numbers of corticotropinreleasing hormone expressing neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of depressed patients. Neuroendocrinology 1994;60:433-436.
29. DE BELLIS MD, COLD PW, CERACIOTI TD Jr, LISTWAK SI, KLING MA. Association of fluoxetine treatment with reductions in CSF concentrations of corticotropin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin in patients with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:656-657.
30. REUL JM, DE KLOET ER. Two receptor systems for corticosterone in rat brain: microdistribution and differential occupation. Endocrinology 1985;117:2505-2511.
31. MILLER AH, SPENCER RL, PULERA M, KANG S, MCEWEN BS, STEIN M. Adrenal steroid receptor activation in rat brain and pituitary following dexamethasone. Implications for the dexamethasone suppression test. Biol Psychiatry 1992;32:850-869.
32. YOUNG EA, HASKETT RF, MURPHY. WEINBERG V, WATSON SI, AKIL H. Loss of glucocorticoid fast feedback in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:693-699.
33. RIBEIRO SCM, TANDON R, GRUNHAUS L, GREDEN JF. The DST as a predictor of outcome in depression: a meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1618-1629.
34. ZOBEL AW, YASSOURIDIS A, FRIEBOES RM, HOLSBOER F. Prediction of medium-term outcome by cortisol response to the combined dexamethasone-CRH test in patients with remitted depression. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:949-951.
35. ZOBEL AW, NICKEL T, SONNTAG A, UHR M, HOLSBOER F, ISING M. Cortisol response in the combined dexamethasone/CRH test as predictor of relapse in patients with remitted depression a prospective study. J Psych Res 2001;35:83-94.
36. SPENCER RL, KIM PJ, KALMAN BA, COLE MA. Evidence for mineralocorticoid receptor facilitation of glucocorticoid receptor-dependent regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Endocrinology 1998;139:2718-2726.
37. PRATT WB. The role of heat shock proteins in regulating the function, folding, and trafficking of the glucocorticoid receptor. J Biol Chem 1993;268:21455-21458.
38. GUIOCHON-MANTEL A, DELABRE K, LESCOPP, MILGROM E. Intracellular traffic of steroid hormone receptors. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1996;56:3-9.
39. MODELL S, YASSOURIDIS A, HUBER I, HOLSBOER F. Corticosteroid receptor function is decreased in depressed patients. Neuroendocrinology 1997;65:216-222.
40. MURPHY BE P. Treatment of major depression with steroid suppressive drugs. I. Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1991;39:239-244.
41. GAMETCHO B. Glucocorticoid receptor-like antigen in lymphoma cell membranes: correlation to cell lysis. Science 1987;236:456-461.
42. WEBSTER MJ, O'GRADY J, ORTHMANN C, WEICKERT C. Decreased glucocorticoid receptor mRNA levels in individuals with depression, bipolar disorder and Schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2000;41:111.
43. COTTER D, PARIANTE CM. Stress on the brain. Beyond the developmental hypothesis of schizophrenia? Br J Psychiatry 2002;181:363-365.
44. LOPEZ JF, CHALMERS DT, LITTLE KI, WATSON SJ. Regulation of serotonin 1A, glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor in rat and human hippocampus. Implications for the neurobiology of depression. Biol Psychiatry 1998;43:547-573.
45. BAUER M, VEDHARA K, PERKS P, WILCOCK G, LIGHTMAN S, SHANKS N. Chronic stress in caregivers of dementia patients is associated with reduced lymphocyte sensitivity to glucocorticoids. J Neuroimmunol 2000;103:84-92.
46. KOK F, HEIJNEN C, BRUIJN J, WESTENBERG H, REE J. Immunoglobulin production in vitro in major depression: a pilot study on the modulating action of endogenous cortisol. Biol Psychiatry 1995;38:217-226.
47. BAUER ME, PAPADOPOULUS A, POON L et al. Altered glucocorticoid immunoregulation in treatment resistant depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2003;28:49-65.
48. BAUER M, PAPADOPOULOS A, POON L, PERKS P, LIGHTMAN S, CHECKLEY S, SHANKS N. Dexamethasone-induced effects on lymphocyte distribution and expression of adhesion molecules in treatment resistant major depression. Psychiatr Res 2002;113:1-15.
49. ASNIS GM, HAIBREICH U, RYAN ND et al. The relationship of the dexamethasone suppression test (1 mg and 2 mg) to basal plasma cortisol levels in endogenous depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1987;12:295-301.
50. MILLER AH, SASTRY G, SPERANZA AJ JR et al. Lack of association between cortisol hypersecretion and non-suppression on the DST in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:267-270.
51. COTTER P, MULLIGAN O, LANDAU S, PAPADOPOULOS A, LIGHTMAN S, CHECKLEY S. Vasoconstrictor response to topical beclomethasone in major depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2002;27:475-487.
52. MAGUIRE TM, THAKORE J, DINAN TG, HOPWOOD S, BREEN KC. Plasma sialyltransferase levels in psychiatric disorders as a possible indicator of HPA function. Biol Psychiatry 1997;41:1131-1136.
53. THAKORE JH, RICHARDS PJ, REZNEK RH, MARTIN A, DINAN TG. Increased intra-abdominal fat deposition in patients with major depression illness as measured by computed tomography. Biol Psychiatry 1997;41:1140-1142.
54. SCHWEIGER U, DEUSCHLE M, KORNER A et al. Low lumbar bone mineral density in patients with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:1691-1693.
55. MICHELSON D, STRATAKIS C, HILL L et al. Bone mineral density in women with depression. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1176-1181.
56. O'MALLEY BW, SCHRADER WT, MANI S et al. An alternative ligand independent pathway for activation of steroid receptors. Recent Prog Horm Res 1995;50:333-347.
57. MILLER AH, PARIANTE CM, PEARCE BD. Effects of cytokines on glucocorticoid receptor expression and function: glucocorticoid resistance and relevance to depression. Adv Exp Med Biol 1999;461:107-116.
58. PARIANTE CM, PEARCE BD, PISELL TL, SANCHEZ CI, PO C, SU C, MILLER AH. The proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1 alpha, reduces glucocorticoid receptor translocation and function. Endocrinology 1999;140:4359-4366.
59. RANGARAJAN PN, UMESONO K, EVANS RM. Modulation of glucocorticoid receptor function by protein kinase A. Mol Endocrinol 1992;6:1451-1457.
60. AVISSAR S, NECHAMKIN Y, ROITMAN G, SCHREIBER G. Reduced G protein functions and immunoreactive levels in mononuclear leukocyts of patients with depression. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:211-217.
61. SHELTON RC, MANIER DH, SULSER F. cAMP-dependent protein kinase activity in major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:1037-1042.
62. CASTRO M, ELLIOT S, KINO T et al. The non-ligand binding beta-isoform of the human glucocorticoid receptor (hGC-beta): tissue levels, mechanism of action, and potential physiologic role. Mol Med 1996;2:597-607.
63. BRONNEGARD M, STIERNA P, MARCUS C. Glucocorticoid resistant syndromes - molecular basis and clinical presentations. J Neuroendocrinol 1996;8:405-415.
64. KORF J, KLEIN HC, VERSIJPT J, DEN BOER JA, TER HORST GJ. Considering depression as a consequence of activation of the inflammatory response system. Acta Neuropsychiatrica 2002;14:1-10.
65. WESSELY S, PARIANTE CM. Fatigue, depression and chronic hepatitis C infection. Psychol Med 2002;32:1-10.
66. PARIANTE CM, LANDAU S, CARPINIELLO B. Interferon-alpha-induced psychiatric adverse effects in patients with chronic viral hepatitis and a psychiatric diagnosis: a prospective, controlled study. N Engl J Med 2002;347:148-149.
67. PARIANTE CM, ORRU' MG, BAITA A, FARCI MG, CARPINIELLO B. Treatment with interferon-alpha in patients with chronic hepatitis and mood or anxiety disorders. The Lancet 1999;354:131-132.
68. MAES M, SCHARPE S, MELTZER HY et al. Relationship between interleukin-6 activity, acute phase proteins, and the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in severe depression. Psychiatr Res 1993;49:11-27.
69. MAES M, MEESTER I, VERKERK R et al. Lower serum dipeptidyl peptidase IV activity in treatment resistant major depression: relationships with immune-inflammatory markers. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997;22:65-78.
70. KUBERA M, VAN BOCKSTAELE D, MAES M. Leukocyte subsets in treatment-resistant major depression. Pol J Pharmac 1999;51:547-549.
71. PARIANTE CM. Cytokines and depression. Perspectives Depression 2001;9:1-5.
72. ZHOU D, KUSNECOV AW, SHURIN MR, DEPAOLI M, RABIN BS. Exposure to physical and psychological stressors elevates plasma interleukin 6. relationship to the activation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Endocrinol 1993;6:2523-2530.
73. ZAHARIA M, RAVINDRAN A, GRIFFITHS J, MERALI Z, ANISMAN H. Lymphocyte proliferation among major depressive and dysthymic patients with typical or atypical features. J Affect Disord 2000;58:1-10.
74. MADDOCK C, PARIANTE CM. How does stress affect you? An overview of stress, immunity, depression and disease. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale 2001;10:153-162.
75. NEBBIA G, PARIANTE CM, KERWIN RW. The molecular mechanisms by which the proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1, influences the glucocorticoid receptor: relevance for glucocorticoid resistance and major depression. Ital J Psychiatry Behav Sci 2000;10:10-16.
76. PARIANTE CM, MAKOFF A, LOVESTONE S et al. Antidepressants enhance glucocorticoid receptor function in vitro by modulating the membrane steroid transporters. Br J Pharmacol 2001;134:1335-1343.
77. PARIANTE CM, PEARCE BD, PISELL TL, OWENS MJ, MILLER AH. Steroid-independent translocation of the glucocorticoid receptor by the antidepressant desipramine. Mol Pharmacol 1997;52:571-581.
78. HOLSBOER F. The corticosteroid receptor hypothesis of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;23:477-501.
79. BARDEN N. Regulation of corticosteroids receptor gene expression in depression and antidepressant action. J Psychiatry Neurosci 1999;24:25-39.
80. MCQUADE R, YOUNG AH. Future therapeutic targets in mood disorders: the glucocorticoid receptor. Br J Psychiatry 2000;177:390-395.
81. BUDZISZEWSKA B, JAWORSKA-FEIL L, KAJTA M, LASON W. Antidepressant drugs inhibit glucocorticoid receptor mediated gene transcription-a possible mechanism. Br J Pharmacol 2000;130:1385-1393.
82. PARIANTE CM, PEARCE BD, PISELL TL, SU C, MILLER AH. The steroid receptor antagonists, RU486 and RU40555, activate glucocorticoid receptor translocation and are not excreted by the steroid hormone transporter in L929 cells. J Endocrinol 2001;169:309-320.
83. KRISHNA R, MAYER LD. Multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer. Mechanisms, reversal using modulators of MDR and the role of MDR modulators in influencing the pharmacokinetics of anticancer drugs. Eur J Pharm Sci 2000;11:265-283.
84. UEDA K, OKAMURA N, HIRAI M et al. Human P-glycoprotein transports cortisol, aldosterone, and dexamethasone, but not progesterone. J Biol Chem 1992;267:24 248-24 252.
85. DE KLOET ER, MEIJER OC, VREUGDENHIL E, JOELS M. The Yin and Yang of nuclear receptors: symposium on nuclear receptors in brain, Oegstgeest, The Netherlands, 13-14 April 2000. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2000;11:245-248.
86. BOURGEOIS S, GRUOL DJ, NEWBY RF, RAJAH FM. Expression of an mdr gene is associated with a new form of resistance to dexamethasone-induced apoptosis. Mol Endocrinol 1993;7:840-851.
87. VARGA A, NUGEL H, BAEHR R et al. Reversal of multidrug resistance by amitriptyline in vitro. Anticancer Res 1996;16:209-212.
88. MERRY S, HAMILTON TG, FLANIGAN P, FRESHNEY RI, KAYE SB. Circumvention of pleiotropic drug resistance in subcutaneous tumours in vivo with verapamil and clomipramine. Eur J Cancer 1991;27:31-34.
89. SZABO D, SZABO G, JR, OCSOVSZKI I, ASZALOS A, MOLNAR J. Anti-psychotic drugs reverse multidrug resistance of tumor cell lines and human AML cell ex-vivo. Cancer Lett 1999;139:115-119.
90. UHR M, STECKLER T, YASSOURIDIS A, HOLSBOER F. Penetration of amitriptyline, but not fluoxetine, into brain is enhanced in mice with blood-brain barrier deficiency due to MDR1a p-glycoprotein gene disruption. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;22:380-387.
91. KRALLI A, YAMAMOTO KR. An FK506-sensitive transporter selectively decreases intracellular levels and potency of steroid hormones. J Biol Chem 1996;271:17152-17156.
92. MARSAUD V, MERCIER-BODARD C, FORTIN D, LE BIHAN S, RENOIR J-M. Dexamethasone and triamcinolone acetonide accumulation in mouse fibroblasts is differently modulated by the immunosuppressants cyclosporin A, FK506, rapamycin and their analogues, as well as by other p-glycoprotein ligands. J Steroid Biochem Molec Biol 1998;66:11-25.
93. MEDH RD, LAY RH, SCHMIDT TJ. Agonist-speciffic modulation of glucocorticoid receptor-mediated transcription by immunosuppressants. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1998;138:11-23.
94. PRZEGALINSKI E, BUDZISZEWSKA B, SIWANOWICZ J, JAWORSKA L. The effect of repeated combined treatment with nifedipine and antidepressant drugs or electroconvulsive shock on the hippocampal corticosteroid receptors in rats. Neuropharmacology 1993;32:1397-1400.
95. LOWY M, GORMLEY G, REDER A, MELTZER H. Immune function, glucocorticoid receptor regulation, and depression. In: MILLER A, ed. Depressive disorders and immunity. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1989:107-133.
96. MOALLI P, ROSEN S. Glucocorticoid receptors and resistance to glucocorticoids in hematologia malignancies. Leuk Lymph 1994;15:363-374.
97. CYPCAR D, BUSSE W. Steroid-resistant asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993;92:362-372.
98. HENNEBOLD J, DAYNES R. Microenvironmental control of glucocorticoid functions in immune regulation. In: ROOK G, LIGHTMAN S, eds. Steroid hormones and the T-cell cytokine profile. London: Springer-Verlag, 1997:101-134.
99. ADCOCK I, LANE S, BROWN C, PETERS M, LEE T, BARNES P. Differences in binding of glucocorticoid receptor to DNA in steroid-resistant asthma. J Immunol 1995;154:3500-3505.
100. ROSNER W. Plasma steroid-binding proteins. Endocr Metab Clin North Amer 1991;20:697-720.
101. PEPIN MC, BEAULIEU S, BARDEN N. Antidepressants regulate glucocorticoid receptor messenger RNA concentrations in primary neuronal cultures. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1989;6:77-83.
102. PEIFFER A, VEILLEUX S, BARDEN N. Antidepressant and other centrally acting drugs regulate glucocorticoid receptor messenger RNA levels in rat brain. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1991;16:505-515.
103. SECKL JR, FINK G. Antidepressants increase glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor mRNA expression in rat hippocampus in vivo. Neuroendocrinology 1992;55:621-626.
104. PEPIN MC, POTHIER F, BARDEN N. Antidepressant drug action in a transgenic mouse model of the endocrine changes seen in depression. Mol Pharmacol 1992;42:991-995.
105. PEPIN MC, GOVINDAN MV, BARDEN N. Increased glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter activity after antidepressant treatment. Mol Pharmacol 1992;41:1016-1022.
106. BUDZISZEWSKA B, SIWANOWICZ J, PRZEGALINSKI E. The effect of chronic treatment with antidepressant drugs on the corticosteroid receptor levels in the rat hippocampus. Pol J Pharmacol 1994;46:147-152.
107. ROSSBY SP, NALEPA I, HUANG M et al. Norepinephrine-independent regulation of GRII mRNA in vivo by a tricyclic antidepressant. Brain Res 1995;687:79-82.
108. EIRING A, SULSER F. Increased synaptic availability of norepinephrine following desipramine is not essential for increases in GR mRNA. J Neural Transm 1997;104:1255-1258.
109. REUL JM, STEC I, SODER M, HOLSBOER F. Chronic treatment of rats with the antidepressant amitriptyline attenuates the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system. Endocrinology 1993;133:312-320.
110. PEETERS BWMM, VAN DER HEIJDEN R, GUBBELS DG, VANDERHEYDEN PML. Effects of chronic antidepressant treatment on the hypothaiamic-pituitary-adrenal axis of Wistar rats. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994;746:449-452.
111. KITAYAMA I, JANSON AM, CINTRA A et al. Effects of chronic imipramine treatment on glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactivity in various regions of the rat brain. J Neural Transm 1988;73:191-203.
112. BRADY LS, COLD PW, HERKENHAM M, LYNN AB, WHITFIELD HJR. The antidepressants fluoxetine, idazoxan and phenelzine alter corticotropin-releasing hormone and tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA levels in rat brain;therapeutic implications. Brain Res 1992;572:117-125.
113. BRADY LS, WHITFIELD HJR, FOX RJ, GOLD PW, HERKENHAM M. Long-term antidepressant administration alters corticotropin-releasing hormone, tyrosine hydroxylase, and mineralocorticoid receptor gene expression in rat brain. J Clin Invest 1991;87:831-837.
114. REUL JMHM, LABEUR MS, GRIGORIADIS DE, DE SOUZA EB, HOLSBOER F. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis changes in the rat after long-term treatment with the reversible monoamine oxidase-A inhibitor moclobemide. Neuroendocrinology 1994;60:509-519.