New and emerging risk factors for CVD

Proceedings of the Nutrition Society

Volumn 67, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 223-231

  Ferns, Gordon A A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SURREY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Biomarkers of early CVD; CVD; Plaque instability; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ASCORBIC ACID; AUTOANTIBODY; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; GLITAZONE DERIVATIVE; HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INTERLEUKIN 6; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; MEVINOLIN; PADGEM PROTEIN; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2; PRAVASTATIN; PROBUCOL;

ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME; ALGORITHM; ANTIBODY DETECTION; APHERESIS; ATHEROGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE; AUTOIMMUNITY; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHLAMYDOPHILA PNEUMONIAE; CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; CONFERENCE PAPER; CONGESTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CORONARY RISK; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG MECHANISM; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; HELICOBACTER PYLORI; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNE SYSTEM; LIPID OXIDATION; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOGENESIS; RISK FACTOR; SCORING SYSTEM; ULTRASOUND;

AGE FACTORS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; BLOOD PRESSURE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHOLESTEROL; HUMANS; RISK FACTORS; ROC CURVE; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY;

EID: 42149094364     PISSN: 00296651     EISSN: 14752719     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0029665108007064     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (117)

1. British Heart Foundation (2006) British Heart Foundation Statistics 2006. http://www.heartstats.org/datapage.asp?id=713
2. Libby P & Ridker PM (2006) Inflammation and atherothrombosis - From population biology and bench research to clinical practice. J Am Coll Cardiol 48, A33-A46.
3. Ross R (1999) Mechanisms of disease - Atherosclerosis - An inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med 340, 115-126.
4. Wood D, Wray R, Poulter N et al. (2005) JBS 2: Joint British Societies' guidelines on prevention of cardiovascular disease in clinical practice. Heart 91, Suppl. 5, v1-v52.
5. Baigent C, Keech A, Kearney PM et al. (2005) Efficacy and safety of cholesterol-lowering treatment: prospective meta-analysis of data from 90,056 participants in 14 randomised trials of statins. Lancet 366, 1267-1278.
6. Williams B (2005) Recent hypertension trials - Implications and controversies. J Am Coll Cardiol 45, 813-827.
7. Jackson R, Lawes CMM, Bennett DA, Milne RJ & Rodgers A (2005) Treatment with drugs to lower blood pressure and blood cholesterol based on an individual's absolute cardiovascular risk. Lancet 365, 434-441.
8. Wilson PWF, D'Agostino RB, Levy D, Belanger AM, Silbershatz H & Kannel WB (1998) Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation 97, 1837-1847.
9. Assmann G, Cullen P & Schulte H (2002) Simple scoring scheme for calculating the risk of acute coronary events based on the 10-year follow-up of the Prospective Cardiovascular Munster (PROCAM) study. Circulation 105, 310-315.
10. Keys A (1980) Seven Countries: A Multivariate Analysis Of Death And Coronary Heart Disease. London: Harvard University Press.
11. Unal B, Critchley JA & Capewell S (2004) Explaining the decline in coronary heart disease mortality in England and Wales between 1981 and 2000. Circulation 109, 1101-1107.
12. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S et al. (2004) Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet 364, 937-952.
13. Rosengren A, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Sliwa K, Zubaid M, Almahmeed WA, Blackett KN, Sitthi-amorn C, Sato H & Yusuf S (2004) Association of psychosocial risk factors with risk of acute myocardial infarction in 11 119 cases and 13 648 controls from 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet 364, 953-962.
14. Dawber TR, Meadors GF & Moore FEJ (1951) Epidemiological approaches to heart disease: the Framingham Study. Am J Public Health 51, 279-286.
15. Cooper JA, Miller GJ & Humphries SE (2005) A comparison of the PROCAM and Framingham point-scoring systems for estimation of individual risk of coronary heart disease in the Second Northwick Park Heart Study. Atherosclerosis 181, 93-100.
16. Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C, Vinogradova Y, Robson J, May M & Brindle P (2007) Derivation and validation of QRISK, a new cardiovascular disease risk score for the United Kingdom: prospective open cohort study. Br Med J 335, 136.
17. Stubbs P, Seed M, Lane D, Collinson P, Kendall F & Noble M (1998) Lipoprotein(a) as a risk predictor for cardiac mortality in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Eur Heart J 19, 1355-1364.
18. Ridker PM, Buring JE & Rifai N (2001) Soluble P-selectin and the risk of future cardiovascular events. Circulation 103, 491-495.
19. Zethelius B, Johnston N & Venge P (2006) Troponin I as a predictor of coronary heart disease and mortality in 70-year-old men - A community-based cohort study. Circulation 113, 1071-1078.
20. De Sutter J, De Bacquer D, Cuypers S, Delanghe J, De Buyzere M, Kornitzer M & De Backer G (2005) Plasma N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide concentration predicts coronary events in men at work: a report from the BELSTRESS study. Eur Heart J 26, 2644-2649.
21. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE & Rifai N (2000) C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med 342, 836-843.
22. Church TS, Levine BD, McGuire DK, Lamonte MJ, FitzGerald SJ, Cheng YLJ, Kimball TE, Blair SN, Gibbons LW & Nichaman MZ (2007) Coronary artery calcium score, risk factors, and incident coronary heart disease events. Atherosclerosis 190, 224-231.
23. Stary HC (1992) Composition and classification of human atherosclerotic lesions. Virchows Arch 421, 277-290.
24. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, Spiegelhalter DJ, Miller OI, Sullivan ID, Lloyd JK & Deanfield JE (1992) Noninvasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 340, 1111-1115.
25. Fuster V, Badimon L, Badimon JJ & Chesebro JH (1992) Mechanisms of disease - the pathogenesis of coronary-artery disease and the acute coronary syndromes. 1. N Engl J Med 326, 242-250.
26. Fuster V, Badimon L, Badimon JJ & Chesebro JH (1992) Mechanisms of disease - the pathogenesis of coronary-artery disease and the acute coronary syndromes. 2. N Engl J Med 326, 310-318.
27. Cook NR (2007) Use and misuse of the receiver operating characteristic curve in risk prediction. Circulation 115, 928-935.
28. Koenig W, Lowel H, Baumert J & Meisinger C (2004) C-reactive protein modulates risk prediction based on the Framingham score - Implications for future risk assessment: Results from a large cohort study in southern Germany. Circulation 109, 1349-1353.
29. Dunder K, Lind L, Zethelius B, Berglund L & Lithell H (2004) Evaluation of a scoring scheme, including proinsulin and the apolipoprotein B/apolipoprotein A1 ratio, for the risk of acute coronary events in middle-aged men: Uppsala Longitudinal Study of Adult Men (ULSAM). Am Heart J 148, 596-601.
30. Nakashima Y, Raines EW, Plump AS, Breslow JL & Ross R (1998) Upregulation of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 at atherosclerosis-prone sites on the endothelium in the ApoE-deficient mouse. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 18, 842-851.
31. Katsuda S, Boyd HC, Fligner C, Ross R & Gown AM (1992) Human atherosclerosis. 3. immunocytochemical analysis of the cell composition of lesions of young-adults. Am J Pathol 140, 907-914.
32. Masuda J & Ross R (1990) Atherogenesis during low-level hypercholesterolemia in the nonhuman primate. 1. Fatty streak formation. Arteriosclerosis 10, 164-177.
33. Hansson GK (2005) Mechanisms of disease - Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 352, 1685-1695.
34. Brown MS & Goldstein JL (1983) Lipoprotein metabolism in the macrophage - implications for cholesterol deposition in atherosclerosis. Annu Rev Biochem 52, 223-261.
35. Witztum JL & Steinberg D (2001) The oxidative modification hypothesis of atherosclerosis: Does it hold for humans? Trends Cardiovasc Med 11, 93-102.
36. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Khoo JC & Witztum JL (1989) Beyond cholesterol - modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med 320, 915-924.
37. Palinski W, Ylaherttuala S, Rosenfeld ME, Steinberg D & Witztum JL (1989) Autoantibodies prevalent in human-sera bind to oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in atherosclerotic lesions. Arteriosclerosis 9, A698.
38. LopesVirella MF, Binzafar N, Rackley S, Takei A, Lavia M & Virella G (1997) The uptake of LDL-IC by human macrophages: predominant involvement of the Fc gamma RI receptor. Atherosclerosis 135, 161-170.
39. Rubbo H, Trostchansky A, Botti H & Batthyany C (2002) Interactions of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite with low-density lipoprotein. Biol Chem 383, 547-552.
40. Weis JR, Pitas RE, Wilson BD & Rodgers GM (1991) Oxidized low-density-lipoprotein increases cultured human endothelial-cell tissue factor activity and reduces protein-C activation. FASEB J 5, 2459-2465.
41. Clinton SK, Underwood R, Hayes L, Sherman ML, Kufe DW & Libby P (1992) Macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene-expression in vascular cells and in experimental and human atherosclerosis. Am J Pathol 140, 301-316.
42. Stary HC, Chandler AB, Dinsmore RE, Fuster V, Glagov S, Insull W Jr, Rosenfeld ME, Schwartz CJ, Wagner WD & Wissler RW (1995) A definition of advanced types of atherosclerotic lesions and a histological classification of atherosclerosis - A report from the Committee on Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association. Circulation 92, 1355-1374.
43. Lendon CL, Davies MJ, Born GVR & Richardson PD (1991) Atherosclerotic plaque caps are locally weakened when macrophages density is increased. Atherosclerosis 87, 87-90.
44. Richardson PD, Davies MJ & Born GVR (1989) Influence of plaque configuration and stress-distribution on fissuring of coronary atherosclerotic plaques. Lancet ii, 941-944.
45. Nikkari ST, O'Brien KD, Ferguson M, Hatsukami T, Welgus HG, Alpers CE & Clowes AW (1995) Interstitial collagenase (MMP-1) expression in human carotid atherosclerosis. Circulation 92, 1393-1398.
46. Qiao JH & Fishbein MC (1991) The severity of coronary atherosclerosis at sites of plaque rupture with occlusive thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 17, 1138-1142.
47. Glagov S, Weisenberg E, Zarins CK, Stankunavicius R & Kolettis GJ (1987) Compensatory enlargement of human atherosclerotic coronary-arteries. N Engl J Med 316, 1371-1375.
48. Ross R (1993) The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis - A perspective for the 1990s. Nature 362, 801-809.
49. Rader DJ (2000) Inflammatory markers of coronary risk. N Engl J Med 343, 1179-1182.
50. Ridker PM, Stampfer MJ & Rifai N (2001) Novel risk factors for systemic atherosclerosis - A comparison of C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, homocysteine, lipoprotein(a), and standard cholesterol screening as predictors of peripheral arterial disease. JAMA 285, 2481-2485.
51. Hulthe J, Wikstrand J & Fagerberg B (2001) Relationship between C-reactive protein and intima-media thickness in the carotid and femoral arteries and to antibodies against oxidized low-density lipoprotein in healthy men: the Atherosclerosis and Insulin Resistance (AIR) study. Clin Sci (Lond) 100, 371-378.
52. Weisberg SP, McCann D, Desai M, Rosenbaum M, Leibel RL & Ferrante AW (2003) Obesity is associated with macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue. J Clin Invest 112, 1796-1808.
53. Hulthe J, Wikstrand J & Fagerberg B (2001) Relationship between C-reactive protein and intima-media thickness in the carotid and femoral arteries and to antibodies against oxidized low-density lipoprotein in healthy men: the Atherosclerosis and Insulin Resistance (AIR) study. Clin Sci (Lond) 100, 371-378.
54. Torzewski M, Rist C, Mortensen RF, Zwaka TP, Bienek M, Waltenberger J, Koenig W, Schmitz G, Hombach V & Torzewski J (2000) C-reactive protein in the arterial intima - Role of C-reactive protein receptor-dependent monocyte recruitment in atherogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20, 2094-2099.
55. Meuwissen M, van der Wal AC, Niessen HWM et al. (2006) Colocalisation of intraplaque C reactive protein, complement, oxidised low density lipoprotein, and macrophages in stable and unstable angina and acute myocardial infarction. J Clin Pathol 59, 196-201.
56. Cleland SJ, Sattar N, Petrie JR, Forouhi NG, Elliott HL & Connell JMC (2000) Endothelial dysfunction as a possible link between C-reactive protein levels and cardiovascular disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 98, 531-535.
57. de Boer OJ, van der Wal AC & Becker AE (2000) Atherosclerosis, inflammation, and infection. J Pathol 190, 237-243.
58. Muhlestein JB (2003) Antibiotic treatment of atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol 14, 605-614.
59. Taylor Robinson D (1997) Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and coronary heart disease - Trials should assess whether antibiotics eliminate organism from atherosclerotic lesions. Br Med J 315, 1538.
60. Wick G, Kleindienst R, Schett G, Amberger A & Xu QB (1995) Role of heat-shock-protein-65/60 in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 107, 130-131.
61. Lamb DJ & Ferns GAA (1999) Infection, immunisation and atherosclerosis: is there a link? Vaccine 17, 559-564.
62. Huittinen T, Leinonen M, Tenkanen L, Manttari M, Virkkunen H, Pitkanen T, Wahlstrom E, Palosuo T, Manninen V & Saikku P (2002) Autoimmunity to human heat shock protein 60, Chlamydia pneumoniae infection, and inflammation in predicting coronary risk. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22, 431-437.
63. Sattar N & Ferns GAA (2005) Endothelial dysfunction. In Cardiovascular Disease: Diet, Nutrition and Emerging Risk Factors, pp. 63-77 [S Stanner, editor]. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
64. Ohara Y, Peterson TE & Harrison DG (1993) Hypercholesterolemia increases endothelial superoxide anion production. J Clin Invest 91, 2546-2551.
65. Witte DR, Westerink J, de Koning EJ, van der Graaf Y, Grobbee DE & Bots ML (2005) Is the association between flow-mediated dilation and cardiovascular risk limited to low-risk populations? J Am Coll Cardiol 45, 1987-1993.
66. Puddu P, Puddu GM, Zaca F & Muscari A (2000) Endothelial dysfunction in hypertension. Acta Cardiol 55, 221-232.
67. Pittilo RM (2000) Cigarette smoking, endothelial injury and cardiovascular disease. Int J Exp Pathol 81, 219-230.
68. Lau PP, Li L, Merched AJ, Zhang AL, Ko KWS & Chan L (2006) Nicotine induces proinflammatory responses in macrophages and the aorta leading to acceleration of atherosclerosis in low-density lipoprotein receptor(-/-) mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 26, 143-149.
69. Yang YM & Liu GT (2004) Damaging effect of cigarette smoke extract on primary cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells and its mechanism. Biomed Environ Sci 17, 121-134.
70. Mays BW, Ripple T, Eginton MT, Seabrook GR, Cambria RA, Towne JB & Freischlag JA (1998) Smoking cessation reverses arterial endothelium-dependent relaxation injury. Vasc Surg 32, 407-413.
71. Heitzer T, Just H & Munzel T (1996) Antioxidant vitamin C improves endothelial dysfunction in chronic smokers. Circulation 94, 6-9.
72. Bernhard D, Pfister G, Huck CW, Kind M, Salvenmoser W, Bonn GK & Wick G (2003) Disruption of vascular endothelial homeostasis by tobacco smoke - impact on atherosclerosis. FASEB J 17, 2302-2304.
73. Li XP, Zhao SP, Zhang XY, Liu L, Gao M & Zhou QC (2000) Protective effect of high density lipoprotein on endothelium-dependent vasodilatation. Int J Cardiol 73, 231-236.
74. O'Brien SF, Watts GF, Playford DA, Burke V, O'Neal DN & Best JD (1997) Low-density lipoprotein size, high-density lipoprotein concentration, and endothelial dysfunction in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabet Med 14, 974-978.
75. Toikka JO, Ahotupa M, Viikari JSA, Niinikoski H, Taskinen MR, Irjala K, Hartiala JJ & Raitakari OT (1999) Constantly low HDL-cholesterol concentration relates to endothelial dysfunction and increased in vivo LDL-oxidation in healthy young men. Atherosclerosis 147, 133-138.
76. Mackness B, Hine D, Liu YF, Mastorikou M & Mackness M (2004) Paraoxonase-1 inhibits oxidised LDL-induced MCP-1 production by endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 318, 680-683.
77. Cleland SJ, Sattar N, Petrie JR, Forouhi NG, Elliott HL & Connell JMC (2000) Endothelial dysfunction as a possible link between C-reactive protein levels and cardiovascular disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 98, 531-535.
78. Bhagat K & Vallance P (1999) Effects of cytokines on nitric oxide pathways in human vasculature. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 8, 89-96.
79. Bhagat K & Vallance P (1997) Inflammatory cytokines impair endothelium-dependent dilatation in human veins in vivo. Circulation 96, 3042-3047.
80. Nygard O, Nordrehaug JE, Refsum H, Ueland PM, Farstad M & Vollset SE (1997) Plasma homocysteine levels and mortality in patients with coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 337, 230-236.
81. Harker LA, Harlan JM & Ross R (1983) Effect of sulfinpyrazone on homocysteine-induced endothelial injury and arteriosclerosis in baboons. Circulation Res 53, 731-739.
82. Upchurch GR, Welch GN, Fabian AJ, Pigazzi A, Keaney JF & Loscalzo J (1997) Stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide production by homocyst(e)ine. Atherosclerosis 132, 177-185.
83. McMahon JA, Skeaff CM, Williams SM & Green TJ (2007) Lowering homocysteine with B vitamins has no effect on blood pressure in older adults. J Nutr 137, 1183-1187.
84. van Dijk RAJM, Rauwerda JA, Steyn M, Twisk JWR & Stehouwer CDA (2001) Long-term homocysteine-lowering treatment with folic acid plus pyridoxine is associated with decreased blood pressure but not with improved brachial artery endothelium-dependent vasodilation or carotid artery stiffness - A 2-year, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 21, 2072-2079.
85. Bonaa KH, Njolstad I, Ueland PM et al. (2006) Homocysteine lowering and cardiovascular events after acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 354, 1578-1588.
86. Tamai O, Matsuoka H, Itabe H, Wada Y, Kohno K & Imaizumi T (1997) Single LDL apheresis improves endothelium-dependent vasodilatation in hypercholesterolemic humans. Circulation 95, 76-82.
87. Jarvisalo MJ, Toikka JO, Vasankari T, Mikkola J, Viikari JSA, Hartiala JJ & Raitakari OT (1999) HMG CoA reductase inhibitors are related to improved systemic endothelial function in coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis 147, 237-242.
88. Dupuis J, Tardif JC, Cernacek P & Theroux P (1999) Cholesterol reduction rapidly improves endothelial function after acute coronary syndromes - The RECIFE (reduction of cholesterol in ischemia and function of the endothelium) trial. Circulation 99, 3227-3233.
89. Martens FMAC, Visseren FLJ, de Koning EJP & Rabelink TJ (2005) Short-term pioglitazone treatment improves vascular function irrespective of metabolic changes in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 46, 773-778.
90. Yeboah J, Reboussin DM, Waters D, Kowalchuk G & Herrington DM (2007) Effects of estrogen replacement with and without medroxyprogesterone acetate on brachial flow-mediated vasoclilator responses in postmenopausal women with coronary artery disease. Am Heart J 153, 439-444.
91. McCrohon JA, Adams MR, McCredie RJ, Robinson J, Pike A, Abbey M, Keech AC & Celermajer DS (1996) Hormone replacement therapy is associated with improved arterial physiology in healthy post-menopausal women. Clin Endocrinol 45, 435-441.
92. Gilligan DM, Sack MN, Guetta V, Casino PR, Quyyumi AA, Rader DJ, Panza JA & Cannon RO (1994) Effect of antioxidant vitamins on low-density- lipoprotein oxidation and impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 24, 1611-1617.
93. Jiang JL, Li NS, Li YJ & Deng HW (2002) Probucol preserves endothelial function by reduction of the endogenous nitric oxide synthase inhibitor level. Br J Pharmacol 135, 1175-1182.
94. Bruckdorfer KR (2005) Oxidative stress. In Cardiovascular Disease: Diet, Nutrition and Emerging Risk Factors, pp. 78-99 [S Stanner, editor]. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
95. Lendon CL, Davies MJ, Born GVR & Richardson PD (1991) Atherosclerotic plaque caps are locally weakened when macrophages density is increased. Atherosclerosis 87, 87-90.
96. Richardson PD, Davies MJ & Born GVR (1989) Influence of plaque configuration and stress-distribution on fissuring of coronary atherosclerotic plaques. Lancet ii, 941-944.
97. Koenig W & Khuseyinova N (2007) Biomarkers of atherosclerotic plaque instability and rupture. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 27, 15-26.
98. Saadeddin SM, Habbab MA, Sobki SH & Ferns GA (2002) Biochemical detection of minor myocardial injury after elective, uncomplicated, successful percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with stable angina: clinical outcome. Ann Clin Biochem 39, 392-397.
99. Verheggen PWHM, de Maat MPM, Cats VM, Haverkate F, Zwinderman AH, Kluft C & Bruschke AVG (1999) Inflammatory status as a main determinant of outcome in patients with unstable angina, independent of coagulation activation and endothelial cell function. Eur Heart J 20, 567-574.
100. Suleiman M, Khatib R, Agmon Y et al. (2006) Early inflammation and risk of long-term development of heart failure and mortality in survivors of acute myocardial infarction - Predictive role of C-reactive protein. J Am Coll Cardiol 47, 962-968.
101. Christenson RH & Azzazy HME (1998) Biochemical markers of the acute coronary syndromes. Clin Chem 44, 1855-1864.
102. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Cerskus A & Stampfer MJ (1994) Plasma concentration of cross-linked fibrin degradation product (D-dimer) and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men. Circulation 90, 2236-2240.
103. Lee LV, Ewald GA, McKenzie CR & Eisenberg PR (1997) The relationship of soluble fibrin and cross-linked fibrin degradation products to the clinical course of myocardial infarction. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17, 628-633.
104. van der Putten RFM, Glatz JFC & Hermens WT (2006) Plasma markers of activated hemostasis in the early diagnosis of acute coronary syndromes. Clin Chim Acta 371, 37-54.
105. Morrow DA, Cannon CP, Jesse RL, Newby LK, Ravkilde J, Storrow AB, Wu AHB & Christenson RH (2007) National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Clinical characteristics and utilization of biochemical markers in acute coronary syndromes. Clin Chem 53, 552-574.
106. Katsuda S, Boyd HC, Fligner C, Ross R & Gown AM (1992) Human atherosclerosis.3. Immunocytochemical analysis of the cell composition of lesions of young adults. Am J Pathol 140, 907-914.
107. Ferns G, Shams S & Shafi S (2006) Heat shock protein 27: its potential role in vascular disease. Int J Exp Pathol 87, 253-274.
108. Salonen JT, Ylaherttuala S, Yamamoto R, Butler S, Korpela H, Salonen R, Nyyssonen K, Palinski W & Witztum JL (1992) Autoantibody against oxidized LDL and progression of carotid atherosclerosis. Lancet 339, 883-887.
109. Solomon DH, Karlson EW, Rimm EB, Cannuscio CC, Mandl LA, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ & Curhan GC (2003) Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in women diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation 107, 1303-1307.
110. Rhew EY & Ramsey-Goldman R (2006) Premature atherosclerotic disease in systemic lupus erythematosus - role of inflammatory mechanisms. Autoimmun Rev 5, 101-105.
111. Greenland P, LaBree L, Azen SP, Doherty TM & Detrano RC (2004) Coronary artery calcium score combined with Framingham score for risk prediction in asymptomatic individuals. JAMA 291, 210-215.
112. Neunteufl T, Heher S, Katzenschlager R, Wolfl G, Kostner K, Maurer G & Weidinger F (2000) Late prognostic value of flow-mediated vasodilation in the brachial artery of patients with chest pain. Am J Cardiol 86, 207-210.
113. Bots ML, Baldassarre D, Simon A, de Groot E, O'Leary DH, Riley W, Kastelein JJ & Grobbee DE (2007) Carotid intima-media thickness and coronary atherosclerosis: weak or strong relations? Eur Heart J 28, 398-406.
114. Casscells W, Hathorn B, David M, Krabach T, Vaughn WK, McAllister HA, Bearman G & Willerson JT (1996) Thermal detection of cellular infiltrates in living atherosclerotic plaques: Possible implications for plaque rupture and thrombosis. Lancet 347, 1447-1449.
115. Dewey M & Hamm B (2007) CT-Koronarangiografie: Untersuchungstechnik, klinische Ergebnisse und Ausblick in zukunftige Entwicklungen (CT coronary angiography: Examination technique, clinical results, and outlook on future developments). Rofo 179, 246-260.
116. Wang TJ, Gona P, Larson MG et al. (2006) Multiple biomarkers for the prediction of first major cardiovascular events and death. N Engl J Med 355, 2631-2639. ]
117. Milne R, Gamble G, Whitlock G & Jackson R (2003) Discriminative ability of a risk-prediction tool derived from the Framingham Heart Study compared with single risk factors. N Z Med J 116, 66 3.