Neurologic uses of botulinum neurotoxin type A

Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment

Volumn 3, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 785-798

  Ney, John P ^a   Joseph, Kevin R ^a  

^a MADIGAN ARMY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

BOTOX ; Botulinum neurotoxins; Chemodenervation; Dysport

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCHOLINE; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BACLOFEN; BOTULINUM TOXIN A; BOTULINUM TOXIN B; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CLONAZEPAM; PROSIGNE; SCOPOLAMINE; SPASMOLYTIC AGENT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ACETYLCHOLINE RELEASE; ADJUVANT THERAPY; ANAPHYLAXIS; ANUS FISSURE; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BLEPHAROSPASM; BOTULISM; BRUXISM; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE; CHRONIC TENSION HEADACHE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM; COUGHING; DIPLOPIA; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG COST; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG FEVER; DRUG FORMULATION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TREATMENT FAILURE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; DRY EYE; DYSARTHRIA; DYSPHAGIA; DYSPHONIA; DYSPNEA; DYSTONIA; EDEMA; ESSENTIAL TREMOR; FACE ASYMMETRY; FACIAL NERVE DISEASE; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; FREY SYNDROME; HEADACHE; HEMIFACIAL SPASM; HUMAN; HYPERHIDROSIS; HYPERSALIVATION; IMMUNOGENICITY; INJECTION SITE CONTUSION; INJECTION SITE ERYTHEMA; INJECTION SITE REACTION; INJECTION SITE SWELLING; LD 50; LOW BACK PAIN; MEIGE DISEASE; MIGRAINE; MINIATURE ENDPLATE POTENTIAL; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NEUROMUSCULAR SYNAPSE; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY; PAIN; PHYSIOTHERAPY; PLANTAR FASCIITIS; PTOSIS; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; RESTLESS LEGS SYNDROME; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SPASTICITY; STRABISMUS; TIC; UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION;

EID: 38149008032     PISSN: 11766328     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (188)

1. Ade-Hall RA, Moore AP. 2000. Botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of lower limb spasticity in cerebral palsy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (1):CD001408.
2. Albright AL, Gilmartin R, Swift D, et al. 2003. Long-term intrathecal baclofen therapy for severe spasticity of cerebral origin. J Neurosurg, 98:291-5.
3. Anderson TJ, Rivest J, Stell R, Steiger, et al. 1992. Botulinum toxin treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Journal Royal Society of Medicine, 85:524-9.
4. Aoki KR 2005. Review of a proposed mechanism for the antinociceptive action of botulinum toxin type A. Neurotoxicology, 26:785-93.
5. Arezzo JC. 2002. Possible mechanisms for the effects of botulinum toxin on pain. Clin J Pain, 18:S125-9.
6. Babcock MS, Foster L, Pasquina P, et al. 2005. Treatment of pain attributed to plantar fasciitis with botulinum toxin a: a short-term, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil, 84:649-54.
7. Baker R, Jasinski M, Maciag-Tymecka I, et al. 2002. Botulinum toxin treatment of spasticity in diplegic cerebral palsy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging study. Dev Med Child Neurol, 44:666-75.
8. Barrientos N, Chana P. 1003. Botulinum toxin in prophylactic treatment of migraine headaches: a preliminary study. J Headache Pain, 4:146-51.
9. Ben Simon GJ, McCann JD. 2005. Benign essential blepharospasm. Int Ophthalmol Clin, 4.5:49-75.
10. Benohanian A. 2007. Needle-free anaesthesia prior to botulinum toxin type A injection treatment of palmar and plantar hyperhidrosis. Br J Dermatol, 156:593-6.
11. Benson J, Daugherty KK. 2007. Botulinum toxin A in the treatment of sialorrhea. Ann Pharmacother, 41:79-85.
12. Bhidayasiri R, Cardoso F, Truong DD. 2006. Botulinum toxin in blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia: comparing different botulinum toxin preparations. Eur J Neurol, 13:21-9.
13. Bhidayasiri R, Truong DD. 2005. Expanding use of botulinum toxin. J Neurol Sci, 235:1-9.
14. Blasi J, Chapman ER, Link E, et al. 1993. Botulinum neurotoxin A selectively cleaves synaptic protein SNAP-25. Nature, 365:160-3.
15. Blitzer A, Brin MF, Greene PE, et al. 1989. Botulinum toxin injection for the treatment of oromandibular dystonia. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol, 98:93-7.
16. Blitzer A. 2005. Botulinum toxin A and B: a comparative dosing study for spasmodic dysphonia. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, 133:836-8.
17. Borodic GE, Acquadro M, Johnson EA. 2001. Botulinum toxin therapy for pain and inflammatory disorders: mechanisms and therapeutic effects. Expert Opin Investig Drugs, 8:1531-44.
18. Borodic GE, Cozzolino D. 1989. Blepharospasm and its treatment, with emphasis on the use of botulinum toxin. Plast Reconstr Surg, 83:546-54.
19. Borodic GE, Ferrante R, Pearce LB, et al. 1994. Histologic assessment of dose-related diffusion and muscle fiber response after therapeutic botulinum A toxin injections. Mov Disord, 9:31-9.
20. BOTOX® (botulinum toxin type A) package insert, 2004. Irvine, CA: Allergan, Inc.
21. BOTOX® Portal Website [online]. Accessed August 10th, 2007. URL: http://www.botoxmedical.com
22. Brashear A, Bergan K, Wojcieszek J, et al. 2000. Patients' perception of stopping or continuing treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin type A. Mov Disord, 15:150-3.
23. Brashear A, Cullis P, Moiho E, et al. 1998. Cervical Dystonia Severity Scale (CDSS) reliability study. Mov Disord, 13:275.
24. Brashear A, Gordon MF, Elovic E, et al. 2002. Intramuscular injection of botulinum toxin for the treatment of wrist and finger spasticity after a stroke. N Engl J Med, 347:395-400.
25. Brashear A, Watts MW, Marchetti A, et al. 2000. Duration of effect of botulinum toxin type A in adult patients with cervical dystonia: a retrospective chart review. Clin Ther, 22:1516-24.
26. Brin M, Childers M, Esquenazi A et al. 1997. Dosing, administration, and a treatment algorithm for use of botulinum toxin A for adult-onset-spasticity. Muscle and Nerve, Suppl 6:S208-20.
27. Brin MF, Lyons KE, Doucette J, et al. 2001. A randomized, double masked, controlled trial of botulinum toxin type A in essential hand tremor. Neurology, 56:1523-8.
28. Byrnes ML, Thickbroom GW, Wilson SA, et al. 1998. The corticomotor representation of upper limb muscles in writer's cramp and changes following botulinum toxin injection. Brain, 121:977-88.
29. Cakmur R, Ozturk V, Uzunel F, et al. 2002. Comparison of preseptal and pretarsal injections of botalinum toxin in the treatment of blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. J Neurol, 249:64-8.
30. Campanati A, Lagalla G, Penna L, et al. 2004. Local neural block at the wrist for treatment of palmar hyperhidrosis with botulinum toxin: technical improvements. J Am Acad Dermatol, 51:345-8.
31. Cheng CM, Chen JS, Patel RP. 2006. Unlabeled uses of botalinum toxins: a review, part 1. Am J Health Syst Pharm, 63:145-52.
32. Childers MK, Brashear A, Jozefczyk P, et al. 2004. Dose-dependent response to intramuscular botulinum toxin type A for upper-limb spasticity in patients after a stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 85:1063-9.
33. Chung SS, Chang JH, Choi JY, et al. 2001. Microvascular decompression for hemifacial spasm: a long-term follow-up of 1,169 consecutive cases. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg, 77:190-3.
34. Comella CL, Buchman AS, Tanner CM, et al. 1992. Botulinum toxin injection for spasmodic torticollis: increased magnitude of benefit with electromyographic assistance. Neurology, 42:878-82.
35. Comella CL, Pullman SL. 2004. Botulinum toxins in neurological disease. Muscle Nerve, 29:628-44.
36. Comella. CL, Thompson PD. 2006. Treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxins. Eur J Neurol, 13:16-20.
37. Consky ES, Lang AE. 1994. Clinical assessments of patients with cervical dystonia. In Jankovic J, Hallett M eds. Therapy with botulinum toxin. New York, N-Y. Marcel Dekker, Inc, p 211-37.
38. Cooper JG, Spilke CE, Denton M, et al. 2005. Clostridium botulinum: an increasing complication of heroin misuse. Eur J Emerg Med, 12:251-2.
39. Corry IS, Cosgrove AP, Duffy CM, et al. 1998. Botulinum toxin A compared with stretching casts in the treatment of spastic equinus: a randomised prospective trial. Journal of pediatric orthopaedics, 18:304-11.
40. Corry IS, Cosgrove AP, Walsh EG, et al. 1997. Botulinum toxin A in the hemiplegic upper limb: a double blind trial. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 39:185-93.
41. Costa J, Espirito-Santo C, Borges A, et al. 2005a. Botulinum toxin type A therapy for blepharospasm. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (1): CD004900.
42. Costa J, Espirito-Santo C, Borges A, et al. 2005b. Botulinum toxin type A therapy for cervical dystonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (1): CD003633.
43. Costa J, Espirito-Santo C, Borges A, et al. 2005c. Botulinum toxin type A therapy for hermifacial spasm. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (1): CD004899.
44. Craig AD. 2003. Pain mechanisms: labeled lines versus convergence in central processing. Annu Rev Neurosci, 26:1-30.
45. Critchfield J. 2002. Considering the immune response to botulinum toxin. Clin J Pain, 18:S133-41.
46. Cui M, Khanijou S, Rubino J, et al. 2004. Subcutaneous administration of botulinum toxin A reduces formalin-induced pain. Pain, 107:125-33.
47. Das CP, Dressler D, Hallett M. 2006. Botulinum toxin therapy of writer's cramp. Eur J Neurol, 13:55-9.
48. Davies J, Duffy D, Boyt N, et al. 2003. Botulinum toxin (BOTOX) reduces pain after hemorrhoidectomy: results of a double-blind, randomized study. Dis Colon Rectum, 46:1097-102.
49. de Paiva A, Meunier FA, Molgo J, et al. 1999. Functional repair of motor endplates after botulinum neurotoxin type A poisoning: biphasic switch of synaptic activity between nerve sprouts and their parent terminals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 96:3200-5.
50. Difazio M, Jabbari B. 2002. A focused review of the use of botulinum toxins for low back pain. Clin J Pain, 18:S155-62.
51. Djebbari R, du Monteel ST, Sangla S, et al. 2004. Factors predicting improvement in motor disability in writer's cramp treated with botulinum toxin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 75:1688-91.
52. Dolly JO, Aoki KR. 2006. The structure and mode of action of different botulinum toxins. Eur J Neurol, 13:1-9.
53. Dones I, Nazzi V, Broggi G. 2006. The guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of spasticity. J Neurosurg Sci, 50:101-5.
54. Dong M, Yeh F, Tepp WH. 2006. SV2 is the protein receptor for botulinum, neurotoxin A. Science, 312:592-6.
55. Dressler D. 2004. New formulation of BOTOX Complete antibody-induced therapy failure in hemifacial spasm. J Neurol, 251:360.
56. Dressler D, Dirnberger G. 2000. Botulinum toxin therapy: risk factors for therapy failure. Mov Disord, 15:51.
57. Dressler D, Dirnberger G, Bhatia KP, et al. 2000. Botulinum toxin antibody testing: comparison between mouse protection assay and the mouse lethality assay. Mov Disord, 15:973-6.
58. Dressler D, Hallett M. 2006. Immunological aspects of BOTOX, Dysport and Myobloc/NeuroBloc. Eur J Neurol, 13:11-15.
59. Dressler D, Saberi FA. 2007. New formulation of BOTOX: complete antibody-induced treatment failure in cervical dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 78:108-9.
60. Dressler D, Saberi FA, Barbosa ER. 2005. Botulinum toxin: mechanisms of action. Arq Neuropsiquiatr, 63:180-5.
61. Duchen LW, Strich SJ. 1968. The effects of botulinum. toxin of the pattern of innervation of skeletal muscle in the mouse. Q J Exp Physiol, 53:84-9.
62. Duchen LW 1971. An electron microscopic study of the changes induced by botulinum, toxin in the motor end-plates of slow and fast skeletal muscle fibers of the mouse. J Neurol Sci, 14:47-60.
63. Dutton JJ, Fowler AM. 2007. Botulinum toxin in ophthalmology. Surv Ophthalmol, 52:13-31.
64. Dysport® (botulinum toxin type A) package insert, 2005. Slough, UK: Ipsen, LTD.
65. Dysport® Website [online]. Accessed August 10th, 2007. URL: http://www.dysport.co.nz/index.php
66. Eisenach JH, Atkinson JL, Fealey RD. 2005. Hyperhidrosis: evolving therapies for a well-established phenomenon. Mayo Clin Proc, 80:657-66.
67. Erbguth FJ. 1996. Historical note on the therapeutic use of botulinum toxin in neurological disorders. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 60:151.
68. Evers S, Olesen J. 2006. Botulinum toxin in headache treatment: the end of the road? Cephalalgia, 26:769-71.
69. Evers S. 2006. Status on the use of botulinum toxin for headache disorders. Curr Opin Neurol, 19:310-15.
70. Fehlings D, Rang M, Glazier J, et al. 2000. An evaluation of botulinum-A toxin injections to improve upper extremity function in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. J Pediatr, 137:331-7.
71. Filippi GM, Errico P, Santarelli R. 1993. Botulinum A toxin effects on rat jaw muscle spindles. Acta Otolaryngol, 113:400-4.
72. Flett PJ, Stern LM, Waddy H, et al. 1999. Botulinum toxin A versus fixed cast stretching for dynamic calf tightness in cerebral palsy. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 35:71-7.
73. Flynn TC. 2006. Update on botulinum toxin. Semin Cutan Med Surg, 25:115-21.
74. Foster L, Clapp L, Erickson M, et al. 2001. Botulinum toxin A and chronic low back pain. Neurology, 56:1290-3.
75. Frei K, Truong DD, Dressler D. 2006. Botulinum toxin therapy of hemifacial spasm: comparing different therapeutic preparations. Eur J Neurol, 13:30-5.
76. Garza I, Swanson JW. 2006. Answers to frequently asked questions about migraine. Mayo Clin Proc, 81:1387-91.
77. Ghazizadeh S, Nikzad M. 2004. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of refractory vaginismus. Obstet Gynecol, 104:922-5.
78. Glogau RG. 2007. Topically applied botulinum toxin type A for the treatment of primary axillary hyperhidrosis: results of a randomized, blinded, vehicle-controlled study. Dermatol Surg, 33:S76-90.
79. Grant AC, Hermanowicz N. 2007. Reduction of EEG myogenic artifact with botulinum toxin during video-EEG monitoring. Epilepsia, 48:324-9.
80. Graven-Nielsen T, Mense S. 2001. The peripheral apparatus of muscle pain; evidence from animal and human studies. Clin J Pain, 17:2-10.
81. Greene P, Shale H, Fahn S. 1988. Analysis of open-label trials in torsion dystonia using high dosages of anticholinergics and other drugs. Mov Disord, 3:46-60.
82. Hanna PA. 1988. Mouse bioassay versus Western blot assay for botulinum toxin antibodies: correlation with clinical response. Neurology, 50:1624-9.
83. Hay JC. 2001. SNARE complex structure and function. Exp Cell Res, 271:10-21.
84. Hesse S, Reiter F, Konrad M, et al. 1998. Botulinum toxin type A and short-term electrical stimulation in the treatment of upper limb flexor spasticity after stroke: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Rehabil, 12:381-8.
85. Hockstein NG, Samadi DS, Gendron K, et al. 2004. Sialorrhea: a management challenge. Am Fam Physician, 69:2628-34.
86. Hsiung GY, Das SK, Ranawaya R, et al. 2002. Long-term efficacy of botulinum. toxin A in treatment of various movement disorders over a 10-year period. Mov Disord, 17:1288-93.
87. Hyman N, Barnes M, Bhakta B, et al. 2000. Botalinum toxin (Dysport) treatment of hip adductor spasticity in multiple sclerosis: a prospective, randomised, double blind, placebo controlled, dose ranging study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 68:707-12.
88. Jabbari B, Ney J, Sichani A, et al. 2006. Treatment of refractory, chronic low back pain with botalinum neurotoxin A: an open-label, pilot study. Pain Med, 7:260-4.
89. Jabbari B, Ney J. 2004. Treatment of low back pain with botulinum neurotoxins. Pain Pract, 4:S47-53.
90. Jankovic J, Schwartz K. 1995. Response and immunoresistance to botulinum toxin injections, Neurology, 45:1743-6.
91. Jankovic J, Vuong KD, Ahsan J. 2003. Comparison of efficacy and immunogenicity of original versus current botulinum toxin in cervical dystonia. Neurology, 60:1186-8.
92. Jankovic J. 2004a. Botulinum toxin in clinical practice. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 75:951-7.
93. Jankovic J. 2004b. Treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin. Mov Disord, 19:S109-15.
94. Jongerius PH, van den Hoogen FJ, van Limbeek J, et at. 2004. Effect of botulinum toxin in the treatment of drooling: a controlled clinical trial. Pediatrics, 114:620-7.
95. Jost WH, Kohl A. 2001. Botulinum toxin: evidence-based medicine criteria in blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. J Neurol, 248:21-4.
96. Jost WH, Blumel J, Grafe S. 2007. Botulinum neurotoxin type A free of complexing proteins (XEOMIN ((R))) in focal dystonia. Drugs, 67:669-83.
97. Karp BI. 2004. Botulinum toxin treatment of occupational and focal hand dystonia. Mov Disord, 19:S116-9.
98. Karp BI. 2004. Botulinum toxin treatment of occupational and focal hand dystonia. Mov Disord, 19:S116-9.
99. Keegan DJ, Geerling G, Lee JP, et al. 2002. Botulinum toxin treatment for hyperlacrimation secondary to aberrant regenerated seventh nerve palsy or salivary gland transplantation. British Journal of Opthalmology, 86:43-6.
100. Kemp LW, Reich SG. 2004. Hemifacial spasm. Curr Treat Options Neurol, 6:175-9.
101. Kennedy RH, Bartley GB, Flanagan JC, et al. 1989. Treatment of blepharospasm with botulinum toxin. Mayo Clin Proc, 64:1085-90.
102. Kern U, Martin C, Scheicher S, et al. 2003. Botulinum toxin type A influences stump pain after limb amputations. J Pain Symptom Manage, 26:1069-70.
103. Koman LA, Mooney JF, Smith BP, et al. 1994. Management of spasticity in cerebral palsy with botulinum-A toxin: report of a preliminary, randomized, double-blind trial. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 14:299-303.
104. Lagalla G, Millevolte M, Capecci M, et al. 2006. Botulinum. toxin type A for drooling in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Mov Disord, 21:704-7.
105. Lal D, Hotaling AJ. 2006. Drooling. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, 14:381-6.
106. Lance JW. 1980. The control of muscle tone, reflexes, and movement: Robert Wartenberg Lecture. Neurology, 30:1303-13.
107. Lang AM. 2003. Botulinum toxin type A therapy in chronic pain disorders. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 84:S69-73.
108. Lew MF. 2002. Review ofthe FDA-approved uses of botulinum toxins, including data suggesting efficacy in pain reduction. Clin J Pain, 18:S142-6.
109. Lim EC, Seet RC, Chow A, et al. 2006. Topical botulinum toxin to treat hyperhidrosis? No sweat! Med Hypotheses, 67:27-32.
110. Lipp A, Trottenberg T, Schink T, et al. 2003. A randomized trial of botulinum, toxin A for treatment of drooling. Neurology, 61:1279-81.
111. Lowe NJ, Glaser DA, Eadie N, et al. 2007. Botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of primary axillary hyperhidrosis: a 52-week multicenter double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of efficacy and safety. J Am Acad Dermatol, 56:604-11.
112. Luvisetto S, Marinelli S, Cobianchi S. 2007. Anti-allodynic efficacy of botulinum neurotoxin A in a model of neuropathic pain. Neuroscience, 145:1-4.
113. Madalinski M, Chodorowski Z. 2006. Why the most potent toxin may heal anal fissure. Adv Ther, 23:627-34.
114. Mancini F, Sandrini G, Moglia A, et al. 2005. A randomised, double-blind, dose-ranging study to evaluate efficacy and safety of three doses of botulinum toxin type A (BOTOX) for the treatment of spastic foot. Neurol Sci, 26:26-31.
115. Mancini F, Zangaglia R, Cristina S, et al. 2003. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of drooling in parkinsonism. Mov Disord, 18:685-8.
116. Mannion RJ, Woolf C. 2000. Pain mechanisms and management: a central perspective. Clin J Pain, 16:S144-56.
117. Manno I, Antonucci F, Caleo M, et al. 2007. BoNT/E prevents seizure-induced activation of caspase 3 in the rat hippocampus. Neuroreport, 18:373-6.
118. Markey AC. 2004. Dysport. Dermatol Clin, 22:213-19.
119. Maselli RA, Burnett ME, Tonsgard JH. 1992. In vitro microelectrode study of neuromuscular transmission in a case of botulism. Muscle Nerve, 15:273-6.
120. Mauriello JA. 2002. Botulinum toxin type A with blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. In Brin MF, Jancovic J, Hallett M eds. Scientific and therapeutic aspects of botulinum toxin. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins. p 197-205.
121. Mauskop A. 2007. Botulinum toxin in headache treatment: the end of the road? Cephalalgia, 27:468.
122. Mayer N, Esquenazi A, Childers M. 1997. Common patterns of clinical motor dysfunction. Muscle and Nerve, Suppl 6:S21-35.
123. Meyer KF. 1956. The status of botulism as a wokd health problem. Bull WHO, 15:281-98.
124. Molloy FM, Shill HA, Kaelin-Lang A, et al. 2002. Accuracy of muscle localization without EMG: implications for treatment of limb dystonia. Neurology, 58:805-7.
125. Montecucco C, Schiavo G, Rosetto O. 1996. The mechanism of action of tetanus and botulinum neurotoxins. Arch Toxicol, 18:342-54.
126. Naumann M, Jankovic J. 2004. Safety of botulinum toxin type A: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Med Res Opin, 20:981-90.
127. Naumann M, Jost W. 2004. Botulinum toxin treatment of secretory disorders. Mov Disord, 19:S137-41.
128. Neurotoxin Institute Website [online] Accessed August 10, 2007. URL: bttp://www.neurotoxininstitute.org/
129. Ney JP, Difazio M, Sichani A, et al. 2006. Treatment of chronic low back pain with successive injections of botulinum toxin a over 6 months: a prospective trial of 60 patients. Clin J Pain, 22:363-9.
130. Nolte D, Gollmitzer I, Loeffelbein DJ, et al. 2004. [Botulinum toxin for treatment of gustatory sweating. A prospective randomized study]. Mund Kiefer Gesichtschir, 8:3 69-75.
131. Odergren T, Hjaltason H, Kaakkola S, et al. 1998. A double blind, randomised, parallel group study to investigate the dose equivalence of Dysport and BOTOX in the treatment of cervical dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 64:6-12.
132. Osborne SL, Latham CF, Wen PJ, et al. 2007. The Janus faces of botulinum neurotoxin: sensational medicine and deadly biological weapon. J Neurosci Res, 85:1149-58.
133. Patel AK, Chapple CR. 2006. Botulinum toxin injection therapy in the management of lower urinary tract dysfunction. Int J Clin Pract Suppl, 151:1-7.
134. Pathak MS, Nguyen HT, Graham HK, et al. 2006. Management of spasticity in adults: practical application of botulinum toxin. Eur J Neurol, 13:42-50.
135. Porta M, Maggioni G, Ottaviani F, et al. 2004. Treatment of phonic tics in patients with Tourette's syndrome using botulinum toxin type A. Neurol Sci, 24:420-3.
136. Potulska A, Friedman A. 2005. Controlling sialorrhoea: a review of available treatment options. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 6:1551-4.
137. Reich SG, Grill SE. 2001. Gustatory sweating: Frey syndrome. Neurology, 65:E24.
138. Rieder CR, Schestatsky P, Socal MP, et al. 2007. A double-blind, randomized, crossover study of prosigne versus BOTOX in patients with blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. Clin Neuropharmacol, 30:39-42.
139. Roberts WJ. 1986. A hypothesis on the physiological basis for causalgia and related pains. Pain, 24:297-311.
140. Ron Y, Avni Y, Lukovetski A, et al. 2001. Botulinum toxin type-A in therapy of patients with anismus. Dis Colon Rectum, 44:1821-6.
141. Sakaguchi G. 1983. Clostridium Botulinum toxins. Pharmacol Ther, 19:165-94.
142. Rosales RL, Bigalke H, Dressler D. 2006. Pharmacology of botulinum toxin: differences between type A preparations. Eur J Neurol, 13 Suppl 1:2-10.
143. Rotenberg JS, Canard K, Difazio M. 2006. Successful treatment of recalcitrant restless legs syndrome with botulinum toxin type-A. J Clin Sleep Med, 2:275-8.
144. Russo RN, Crotty M, Miller MD, et al. 2007. Upper-limb botulinum toxin A injection and occupational therapy in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy identified from a population register: a single-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics, 119:e1149-58.
145. Sampaio C, Ferreira JJ, Simoes F, et al. 1997. DYSBOT: a single-blind, randomized parallel study to determine whether any differences can be detected in the efficacy and tolerability of two formulations of botulinum toxin type A - Dysport and BOTOX - assuming a ratio of 4:1. Mov Disord, 12:1013-8.
146. Schantz EJ, Johnson EA. 1997. Botulinum toxin: the story of its development for the treatment of human disease. Perspect Biol Med, 40:317-27.
147. Schneider SA, Edwards MJ, Grill SE, et al. 2006. Adult-onset primary lower limb dystonia. Mov Disord, 21:767-71.
148. Schomburg ED, Stephens H, Klaus-Dieter K. 1999. Contribution of group III and IV afferents to multisensorial spinal motor control in cats. Neurosci Res, 33:95-206.
149. Schwartz M, Freund B. 2002. Treatment of temporomandibular disorders with botulinum toxin. Clin J Pain, 18:S198-203.
150. Scott AB, Kennedy RA, Stubbs HA. 1985. Botulinum A toxin injection as a treatment for blepharospasm. Arch Ophthalmol, 103:347-50.
151. Scott AB, Rosenbaum A, Collins CC. 1973. Pharmacologic weakening of the extraocular muscles. Invest Opthamol, 12:924-7.
152. Scott AB, Suzuki D. 1988. Systemic toxicity of botulinum toxin by intramuscular injection in the monkey. Mov Disord, 3:333-5.
153. Setler PE. 2002. Therapeutic use of botulinum toxins: background and history. Clin J Pain, 18:S119-24.
154. Shapiro RL, Hatheway C, Swerdlow DL. 1998. Botulism in the United States: a clinical and epidemiologic review. Ann Intern Med, 129:221-8.
155. Sheean GL. 2001. Botulinum treatment of spasticity: why is it so difficult to show a functional benefit? Curr Opin Neurol, 14:771-6.
156. Silberstein S, Mathew N, Saper J, et al. 2000. Botulinum toxin type A as a migraine preventive treatment. For the BOTOX Migraine Clinical Research Group. Headache, 40:445-50.
157. Silberstein S. 2004. Botulinum neurotoxins: origins and basic mechanisms of action. Pain Practice, 4:S19-26.
158. Simpson DM, Alexander DN, O'Brien CF, et al. 1996. Botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of upper extremity spasticity: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology, 46:1306-10.
159. Simpson LL. 2000. Identification of the characteristics that underlie botulinum toxin potency: implications for designing novel drugs. Biochemie, 82:942-53.
160. Simpson LL. 1980. Kinetic studies on the interaction between botulinum toxin type A and the cholinergic neuromuscular. J Pharm Exp Ther, 212:16-21.
161. Singer C, Papapetropoulos S. 2006. Adult-onset primary focal foot dystonia. Parkinsonism Relat Disord, 12:57-60.
162. Speelman JD, Brans JW. 1995. Cervical dystonia and botulinum treatment: is electromyographic guidance necessary? Mov Disord, 10:802.
163. Talarico-Fitho S, Mendonca DO, Nascimento M, et al. 2007. A double-blind, randomized, comparative study of two type A botulinum toxins in the treatment of primary axillary hyperhidrosis. Dermatol Surg, 33:S44-50.
164. Tan EK, Jankovic J. 1999. Botulinum toxin A in patients with oromandibular dystonia: long-term follow-up. Neurology, 53:2102-7.
165. Tan EK. 2006. Botulinum toxin treatment of sialorrhea: comparing different therapeutic preparations. Eur J Neurol, 13:60-4.
166. Tan NC, Chan LL, Tan EK. 2002. Hemifacial spasm and involuntary facial movements. QJM, 95:493-500.
167. Tang X, Wan X. 2000. Comparison of BOTOX with a Chinese type A botulinum toxin. Chin J Med, 115:794-8.
168. Tarsy D, Simon DK. 2006. Dystonia. N Engl J Med, 355:818-29.
169. Tolosa E, Kulisevsky J, Fahn S. 1988. Meige syndrome: primary and secondary forms. Adv Neurol, 50:509-15.
170. Truong D. 2005. Efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A toxin complex (Dysport) for the treatment of benign essential blepharospasm. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders, 11: 68.
171. Tsai CP, Liu CY, Lin KP, et al. 2006. Efficacy of botulinum toxin type a in the relief of Carpal runnel syndrome: a preliminary experience. Clin Drug Investig, 26:511-5.
172. Tsui JK, Bhatt M, Calne S, et al. 1993. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of writer's cramp: a double-blind study. Neurology, 43:183-5.
173. Tsui JK, Eisen A, Mak E, et al. 1985. A pilot study on the use of botulinum toxin in spasmodic torticollis. Can J Neurol Sci, 12:314-6.
174. Tsui JK, Eisen A, Stoessl AJ. 1986. Double-blind study of botulinum toxin in spasmodic torticollis. Lancet, 2:245-7.
175. Unal M, Sevirn S, Dogu. S, et al. 2003. Effect of botulinum toxin A on nasal symptoms in allergic rhinitis: a double blind, placebo controlled trial. Acta Otolaryngologica, 123:1060-3.
176. Van den Bergh P, Francart J, Mourin S, et al. 1995. Five-year experience in the treatment of focal movement disorders with low-dose Dysport botulinum toxin. Muscle Nerve, 18:720-9.
177. Van Ermengem E. 1979. Classics in infectious diseases. A new anaerobic bacillus and its relation to botulism. Rev Infect Dis, 4:701-19.
178. Van Zandijcke M, Marchau MM. 1990. Treatment of bruxism with botulinum toxin injections. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 53:530.
179. Verrotti A, Greco R, Spalice A. 2006. Pharmacotherapy of spasticity in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Neurol, 34:1-6.
180. Wallen M, O'Flaherty SJ, Waugh MC. 2007. Functional outcomes of intramuscular botulinum toxin type a and occupational therapy in the upper limbs of children with cerebral palsy: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 88:1-10.
181. Ward AB, Molenaers G, Colosimo C, et al. 2006. Clinical value of botulinum toxin in neurological indications. Eur J Neurol, 13:20-6.
182. Wasiak J, Hoare B, Wallen M. 2004. Botulinum toxin A as an adjunct to treatment in the management of the upper limb in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (4):CD003469.
183. WEMOVE™ Websiten [online] Accessed April 10th, 2007. URL:http://www.mdvu.org/library/dosingtables/btxa_adg_dys.html
184. Wissel J, Kanovsky P, Ruzicka E, et al. 2001. Efficacy and safety of a standardised 500 unit dose of Dysport (clostridium botulinuin toxin type A haemaglutinin complex) in a heterogeneous cervical dystonia population: results of a prospective, multicentre, randomised,double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group study. J Neurol, 248:1073-8.
185. Wohlfarth K, Muller C, Sassin I, et al. 2007. Neurophysiological double-blind trial of a botulinum neurotoxin type A free of complexing proteins. Clin Neuropharmacol, 30:86-94.
186. Xeomin® Website [online]. Accessed August 10th, 2007. URL: http://www.xeomin.com
187. Yang TF, Fu CP, Kao NT, et al. 2003. Effect of botulinum toxin type A on cerebral palsy with upper limb spasticity. Am J Phys Med Rehabil, 82:284-9.
188. Yoshimura DM, Amimoff MJ,Tami TA, et al. 1992. Treatment of hemifacial spasm with botulinum toxin. Muscle Nerve, 15:1045-9.