Neuromechanics: An integrative approach for understanding motor control

Integrative and Comparative Biology

Volumn 47, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 16-54

  Nishikawa, Kiisa ^a   Biewener, Andrew A ^a,b   Aerts, Peter ^c   Ahn, Anna N ^d   Chiel, Hillel J ^e   Daley, Monica A ^b   Daniel, Thomas L ^f   Full, Robert J ^g   Hale, Melina E ^h   Hedrick, Tyson L ^f   Lappin, A Kristopher ^a   Nichols, T Richard ⁱ   Quinn, Roger D ^j   Satterlie, Richard A ^k   Szymik, Brett ^k  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ANTWERP   (Belgium)

^d HARVEY MUDD COLLEGE   (United States)

^e CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^f UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^g UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

ⁱ EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^j Case Western Reserve University   (United States)

^k UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA WILMINGTON   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA;

EID: 35448968412     PISSN: 15407063     EISSN: 15577023     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/icb/icm024     Document Type: Article

References (210)

1. Aerts P, Van Damme R, Vanhooydonck B, Zaaf A, Herrel A. 2000a. Lizard locomotion: how morphology meets ecology. Neth J Zool 50:261-78.
2. Aerts P, Van Damme R, Van Elsacker L, Duchêne V. 2000b. Spatio-temporal gait characteristics of the hind limb cycle during voluntary bipedal and quadrupedal walking in bonobos (Pan paniscus). Am J Phys Ant 111:503-17.
3. Aerts P, D'Août K, Herrel A, Van Damme R. 2002. Topics in functional and ecological vertebrate morphology: introduction. In: Aerts P, D'Août K, Herrel A, Van Damme R, editors. Topics in functional and ecological vertebrate morphology. A tribute to Frits De Vree. Maastricht, The Netherlands: Shaker Publishing BV. p 1-4.
4. Ahn AN, Full RJ. 2002. A motor and a brake: two leg extensor muscles acting at the same joint manage energy differently in a running insect. J Exp Biol 205:379-89.
5. Ahn AN, Monti RJ, Biewener AA. 2003. In vivo and in vitro heterogeneity of segment length changes in the semimembranous muscle of the toad. J Physiol 549:877-88.
6. Ahn AN, Meijer K, Full RJ. 2006. In situ muscle power differs without varying in vitro mechanical properties in two insect leg muscles innervated by the same motor neuron. J Exp Biol 209:3370-82.
7. Alexander RM, Bennet-Clark HC. 1977. Storage of elastic strain energy in muscle and other tissues. Nature 265:114-7.
8. Aoyagi Y, Stein RB, Mushawar VK, Prochazka A. 2004. The role of neuromuscular properties in determining the endpoint of a movement. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehab Eng 12:12-3.
9. Arnold SJ. 1983. Morphology, performance and fitness. Amer Zool 23:347-61.
10. Arshavsky YI, Beloozerova IN, Orlovsky GN, Panchin YV, Pavlova GA. 1985a. Control of locomotion in marine mollusc Clione limacina. III. On the origin of locomotory rhythm. Exp Brain Res 58:263-72.
11. Arshavsky YI, Beloozerova IN, Orlovsky GN, Panchin YV, Pavlova GA. 1985b. Control of locomotion in marine mollusc Clione limacina. IV. Role of type 12 interneurons. Exp Brain Res 58:285-93.
12. Arshavsky YI, Orlovsky GN, Panchin YV, Pavlova GA. 1989. Control of locomotion in marine mollusc Clione limacina. VII. Reexamination of type 12 interneurons. Exp Brain Res 78:398-406.
13. Aschenbeck KS, Kern NI, Bachmann RJ, Quinn RD. 2006. Design of a quadruped robot driven by air muscles. BIOROB'06, Pisa, Italy.
14. Autumn A, et al. 2005. Robotics in scansorial environments. In: Gerhart GR, Shoemaker CM, Shoemaker, Gage DW, editors. Unmanned ground vehicle technology VII. Vol. 5804. Proceedings of SPIE. p 291-302.
15. Autumn K, Hsieh ST, Dudek DM, Chen J, Chitaphan C, Full RJ. 2006. The dynamics of vertical running in geckos. J Exp Bio 209:260-72.
16. Ayers J, Davis J, Rudolph A. 2001. Neurotechnology for Biomimetic Robots. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
17. Beer RD, Chiel HJ, Quinn RD, Espenschied K, Larsson P. 1992. A distributed neural net architecture for hexapod robot locomotion. Neural Computation 4:356-65.
18. Berkowitz A. 2005. Physiology and morphology indicate that individual spinal interneurons contribute to diverse limb movements. J Neurophysiol 94:4455-70.
19. Berns K, Cordes S, Hg W. 1994. Adaptive, neural control architecture for the walking machine Lauron. Munich: Proc IEEE/RSJ Intl Conf Intelligent Robots and Systems, p 1172-7.
20. Bernstein A. 1967. The coordination and regulation of movements. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
21. Biewener AA. 1998. Muscle function in vivo: a comparison of muscles use for elastic energy savings versus muscles used to generate mechanical power. Amer Zool 38:703-17.
22. Biewener AA, Roberts TJ. 2000. Muscle and tendon contributions to force, work and elastic energy savings: a comparative perspective. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 28:99-107.
23. Blickhan R, Full RJ. 1987. Locomotion energetics of the ghost crab: II. Mechanics of the center of mass during walking and running. J Exp Bio 130:155-74.
24. Blickhan R, Full RJ. 1993. Similarity in multilegged locomotion: bouncing like a monopode. J Comp Physiol 173:509-17.
25. Brainerd EL, Hale ME. 2005. In vivo and functional imaging in developmental physiology. In: Warburton SJ, Burggren WW, Pelster B, Reiber CL, Spicer J, editors. Comparative Developmental Physiology: Contributions, Tools and Trends. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, p 21-40.
26. Brooks RA. 1989. A robot that walks: emergent behavior from a carefully evolved network. Neural Computation 1:253-62.
27. Brown IE, Loeb GE. 2000. A reductionist approach to creating and using neuromusculoskeletal models. In: Winters JM, Crago PE, editors. Biomechanics and neural control of posture and movement. New York: Springer-Verlag, p 148-63.
28. Budick SA, O'Malley DM. 2000. Locomotor repertoire of the larval zebrafish: swimming, turning and prey capture. J Exp Biol 203:2565-79.
29. Burrows M. 2003. Froghopper insects leap to new heights. Nature 424:509.
30. Buschges A. 2005. Sensory control and organization of neural networks mediating coordination of multisegmental organs. J Neurophysiol 93:1127-35.
31. Caldwell DG, Medrano-Cerda GA, Goodwin MJ. 1995. Control of pneumatic muscle actuators. IEEE Control Syst J 15:40-8.
32. Campbell KS, Moss RL. 2002. History-dependent mechanical properties of permeabilized rat soleus muscle fibers. Biophys J 82:929-43.
33. Carbonell CS. 1947. The thoracic muscles of the cockroach Periplaneta americana. Smithsonian Misc Collections 107:1-23.
34. Cavagna GA, Heglund NC, Taylor CR. 1977. Mechanical work in terrestrial locomotion: two basic mechanisms for minimizing energy expenditure. Am J Physiol 233:R243-61.
35. Cham JG, Bailey SA, Clark JE, Full RJ, Cutkosky MR. 2002. Fast and robust: hexapedal robots via shape deposition manufacturing. Int Journal of Robotics Research 21:869-82.
36. Chestek CAS, Garverick L, Tabib-Azar M, Harrison RR, Martin HB, Lu H, Samsukha P, Chiel HJ. 2004. Techniques for stimulating and recording wirelessly from a multiaction identified neuron in Aplysia. Soc Neurosci Abst 30.
37. Chiel HJ, Beer RD. 1997. The brain has a body: adaptive behavior emerges from interactions of nervous system, body and environment. Trends Neurosci 20:553-7.
38. Chou C, Hannaford B. 1996. Measurement and modeling of McKibben pneumatic artificial muscles. IEEE Trans Robotics Automation 12:90-102.
39. Cordo PJ, Flores-Vieira C, Verschueren SM, Inglis JT, Gurfinkel V. 2002. Position sensitivity of human muscle spindles: single afferent and population representations. J Neurophysiol 87:1186-95.
40. Corey DR, Abrams JM. 2001. Morpholino antisense oligonucleotides: tools for investigating vertebrate development. Genome Biol 2:1015.1-1015.3.
41. Cowan NJ, Lee J, Full RJ. 2006. Task-level control of rapid wall following in the American cockroach. J Exp Bio 209:1617-29.
42. Crago PE, Houk JC, Rymer WZ. 1982. Sampling of total muscle force by tendon organs. J Neurophysiol 47:1069-83.
43. Cruse H. 1990. What mechanisms coordinate leg movement in walking arthropods? Trends Neurosci 13:15-21.
44. Daley MA. 2004. Running in a rough environment: the mechanical influence of limb posture and ankle extensor dynamics on stability in running guinea fowl. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 137:S90.
45. Daley MA. 2005. The role of limb posture in stabilizing bipedal locomotion over uneven terrain. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 141:S127.
46. Daley MA, Biewener AA. 2003. Muscle force-length dynamics during level versus incline locomotion: a comparison of in vivo performance of two guinea fowl ankle extensors. J Exp Biol 206:2941-58.
47. Daley MA, Biewener AA. 2006. Running over rough terrain reveals limb control for intrinsic stability. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 103:15681-6.
48. Daley MA, Usherwood JR, Felix G, Biewener AA. 2006. Running over rough terrain: guinea fowl maintain dynamic stability despite a large unexpected change in substrate height. J Exp Biol 209:171-87.
49. Daley MA, Felix G, Biewener AA. 2007. Running stability is enhanced by a proximo-distal gradient in joint neuromechanical control. J Exp Biol 210:383-94.
50. Dickinson MH, Lehmann F-O, Sane SP. 1999. Wing rotation and the aerodynamic basis of insect flight. Science 284:1954-60.
51. Dickinson MH, Farley CT, Full RJ, Koehl MAR, Kram R, Lehman S. 2000. How animals move: an integrative view. Science 288:100-6.
52. D'Août K, Aerts P, De Clercq D, De Meester K, Van Elsacker L. 2002. Segment and joint angles of the hind limb during bipedal and quadrupedal walking in the bonobo (Pan paniscus). Am J Phys Ant 119:37-51.
53. Earhart G, Stein P. 2000. Step, swim and scratch motor pattern in the turtle. J Neurophysiol 84:2181-90.
54. Eccles JC, Eccles RM, Lundberg A. 1957. The convergence of monosynaptic excitatory afferents on to many different species of alpha motor neurons. J Physiol 137:22-50.
55. Edman KAP, Reggiani C. 1984. Length-tension-velocity relationships studies in short consecutive segments of intact muscle fibres of the frog. In: Pollack GH, Sugi H, editors. Contractile mechanisms in muscle 170. New York: Plenum, p 495-506.
56. Edman KAP, Reggiani C, Schiaffino S, TeKronnie G. 1988. Maximum velocity of shortening related to myosin isoform composition in frog skeletal muscle fibres. J Physiol 395:679-94.
57. Enoka RM. 2002. Neuromechanics of human movement. Champaign, USA: Human Kinetics.
58. Espenschied KS, Quinn RD, Chiel HJ, Beer RD. 1993. Leg coordination mechanisms in stick insect applied to hexapod robot locomotion. Adaptive Behaviour 1:455-68.
59. Espenschied KS, Quinn RD, Chiel HJ, Beer RD. 1996. Biologically-based distributed control and local reflexes improve rough terrain locomotion in a hexapod robot. Robotics Autonomous Syst 18:59-64.
60. Evans CG, Rosen S, Kupfermann I, Weiss KR, Cropper EC. 1996. Characterization of a radula opener neuromuscular system in Aplysia. J Neurophysiol 76:1267-81.
61. Foreman MB, Eaton RC. 1993. The direction change concept for reticulopsinal control of goldfish locomotion. J Neurosci 13:4101-13.
62. Full RJ. 2000. Biological inspiration: lessons from many-legged locomotors. In: Hollerbach J, Koditschek D, editors. Robotics research nineth international symposium. London: Springer-Verlag, p 337-41.
63. Full RJ, Blickhan R, Ting LH. 1991. Leg design in hexapedal runners. J Exp Biol 158:369-90.
64. Full RJ, Ahn AN. 1995. Static forces and moments generated in the insect leg: comparison of a three-dimensional musculo-skeletal computer model with experimental measurements. J Exp Biol 198:1285-98.
65. Full RJ, Koditschek DE. 1999. Templates and anchors: neuromechanical hypotheses of legged locomotion on land. J Exp Biol 202:3325-32.
66. Full RJ, Tu MS. 1990. The mechanics of six-legged runners. J Exp Biol 148:129-46.
67. Full RJ, Stokes DR, Ahn AN, Josephson RK. 1998. Energy absorption during running by leg muscles in a cockroach. J Exp Biol 201:997-1012.
68. Full RJ, Kubow T, Schmitt J, Holmes P, Koditschek D. 2002. Quantifying dynamic stability and maneuverability in legged locomotion. Int & Comp Biology 42:149-57.
69. Full RJ, Kubow T, Garcia M, Schwind W, Kodistchek D. 2003. Can a simple neural oscillator generate rapid running in cockroaches? Toronto ON, Canada: Society for integrative and comparative annual meeting & exhibition final program & abstracts, p 175.
70. Fulton JF, Suner PIJ. 1928. A note concerning the probable function of various afferent end-organs in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 83:554-62.
71. Gahtan E, Sankrithi N, Campos JB, O'Malley DM. 2002. Evidence for a widespread brain stem escape network in larval zebrafish. J Neurophysiol 87:609-14.
72. Gardner D. 1993. Static determinants of synaptic strength. In: Gardner D, editor. The neurobiology of neural networks. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, p 21-70.
73. Gaßmann B, Scholl K-U, Berns K. 2001. Behavior control of LAURON III for walking in unstructured Terrain. Proc Intl Conf on Climbing and Walking Robots (CLAWAR'01), Karlsruhe, Germany, p 651-8.
74. Gestrau C, Dutschmann M, Obled S, Bianchi A. 2005. Activation of XII motor neurons and premotor neurons during various oropharyngeal behaviors. Resp Physiol Neurobiol 147:159-76.
75. Gillis G, Biewener AA. 2000. Hind limb extensor muscle function during jumping and swimming in the toad (Bufo marinus). J Exp Biol 203:3547-63.
76. Gillis GB, Flynn JP, McGuigan P, Biewener AA. 2005. Patterns of strain and activation in the thigh muscles of goats across gaits during level locomotion. J Exp Biol 208:4599-611.
77. Goldman DI, Chen TS, Dudek DM, Full RJ. 2006. Dynamics of rapid vertical climbing in cockroaches reveals a template. J Exp Bio 209:2990-3000.
78. Göpfert MC, Robert D. 2002. The mechanical basis of Drosophila audition. J Exp Biol 205:1199-208.
79. Gordon AM, Huxley AF, Julian FJ. 1966. The variation in isometric tension with sarcomere length in vertebrate muscle fibres. J Physiol 184:170-92.
80. Gottschall J, Huyghues-Despointes CM, Nichols TR. 2005. The effects of treadmill slope and head pitch on muscle activity patterns in the decerebrate cat hindlimb during walking. Soc Neurosci Abstr 31.
81. Granato M, et al. 1996. Genes controlling and mediating locomotion behaviour of the zebrafish embryo and larva. Development 123:399-413.
82. Gray M, Moens CB, Amacher SL, Eisen JS, Beattie CE. 2001. Zebrafish deadly seven functions in neurogenesis. Dev Biol 237:306-23.
83. Greiner H, Shectman A, Won C, Elsley R, Beith P. 1996. Autonomous legged underwater vehicles for near land warfare. Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Technology, 1996. AUV '96. Proc 1996 Symposium (2-6 June) pp 41-8.
84. Grillner S. 1975. Locomotion in vertebrates: central mechanisms and reflex interaction. Physiol Rev 55:247-302.
85. Guertin P, Angel MJ, Perreault MC, McCrea DA. 1995. Ankle extensor group I afferents excite extensors throughout the hindlimb during fictive locomotion in the cat. J Physiol 487:197-209.
86. Haftel VK, Bichler EK, Nichols TR, Pinter MJ, Cope TC. 2004. Movement reduces the dynamic response of muscle spindle afferents and motor neuron synaptic potentials in rat. J Neurophysiol 91:2164-71.
87. Haftel VK, Bichler EK, Wang QB, Prather JF, Pinter MJ, Cope TC. 2005. Central suppression of regenerated proprioceptive afferents. J Neurosci 25:4733-42.
88. Hale ME, Kheirbek MA, Schriefer JE, Prince VE. 2004. Hox gene misexpression and cell-specific lesions reveal functionality of homeotically transformed neurons. J Neurosci 24:3070-6.
89. Hale ME, Ritter DA, Fetcho JR. 2001. A confocal study of spinal interneurons in living larval zebrafish. J Comp Neurol 437:1-16.
90. Harris RA, O'Carroll DC, Laughlin SB. 1999. Adaptation and the temporal delay filter of fly motion detectors. Vision Res 39:2603-13.
91. Hasan Z, Houk JC. 1975. Transition in sensitivity of spindle receptors that occurs when muscle is stretched more than a fraction of a millimeter. J Neurophysiol 38:673-59.
92. Hedrick TL, Daniel TL. 2006. Flight control in the hawkmoth Manduca sexta: the inverse problem of hovering. J Exp Biol 209:3114-30.
93. Hill AV. 1938. The heat of shortening and the dynamic constants of muscle. Proc Roy Soc B 126:136-95.
94. Holmes P, Full RJ, Koditschek D, Guckenheimer J. 2006. Dynamics of legged locomotion: models, analyses, and challenges. SIAM Review (SIREV) 48:207-304.
95. Houk J, Henneman E. 1967. Responses of Golgi tendon organs to active contractions of the soleus muscle of the cat. J Neurophysiol 30:466-81.
96. Houk JC. 1972. The phylogeny of muscular control configurations. In: Drischel H, Dettmar A, editors. Biocybernetics. Vol. 4, Jena: Fischer, p 125-44.
97. Houk JC, Crago PE, Rymer WZ. 1981. Function of the spindle dynamic response in stiffness regulation - a predictive mechanism provided by non-linear feedback. In: Taylor A, Prochazka A, editors. Muscle receptors and movement. London: MacMillan. p 299-309.
98. Hurwitz I, Neustadter D, Morton DW, Chiel HJ, Susswein AJ. 1996. Activity patterns of the B31/B32 pattern initiators innervating the 12 muscle of the buccal mass during normal feeding movements in Aplysia californica. J Neurophysiol 75:1309-26.
99. Huxley AF, Peachey LD. 1961. The maximum length for contraction in vertebrate striated muscle. J Physiol 156:150-65.
100. Huyghues-Despointes CM, Cope TC, Nichols TR. 2003a. Intrinsic properties and reflex compensation in reinnervated triceps surae muscles of the cat: effect of activation level. J Neurophysiol 90:1537-46.
101. Huyghues-Despointes CM, Cope TC, Nichols TR. 2003b. Intrinsic properties and reflex compensation in reinnervated triceps surae muscles of the cat: effect of movement history. J Neurophysiol 90:1547-55.
102. Jami L. 1992. Golgi tendon organs in mammalian skeletal muscle: functional properties and central actions. Physiol Rev 72:623-66.
103. Jindrich DL, Full RJ. 2002. Dynamic stabilization of rapid hexapedal locomotion. J Exp Biol 205:2803-23.
104. Jing J, Weiss KR. 2001. Neural mechanisms of motor program switching in Aplysia. J Neurosci 21:7349-62.
105. Jing J, Weiss KR. 2002. Interneuronal basis of the generation of related but distinct motor programs in Aplysia: implications for current neuronal models of vertebrate intralimb coordination. J Neurosci 22:6228-38.
106. Josephson RK. 1985. Mechanical power output from striated muscle during cyclic contraction. J Exp Biol 114:493-512.
107. Josephson RK. 1999. Dissecting muscle power output. J Exp Biol 202:3369-75.
108. Joyce GC, Rack PMH, Westbury DR. 1969. The mechanical properties of cat soleus muscle during controlled lengthening and shortening movements. J Physiol 204:461-74.
109. Kargo WJ, Rome LC. 2002. Functional morphology of proximal hindlimb muscles in the frog Rana pipiens. J Exp Biol 205:1987-2004.
110. Kier W, Smith K. 1985. Tongues, tentacles and trunks - the biomechanics of movement in muscular-hydrostats. Zool J Linnean Soc 83:307-24.
111. Kingsley DA, Quinn RD. 2002. Fatigue life and frequency response of braided pneumatic actuators. IEEE Intl Conf Robotics and Automation (ICRA'02), Washington DC.
112. Kingsley DA, Quinn RD, Ritzmann RE. 2003. A cockroach inspired robot with artificial muscles. Intl Symp Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines (AMAM'03), Kyoto, Japan.
113. Kirchner F, Spenneberg D. 2001. Omni-directional walking in multi-pod-robots based on feedback driven oscillators and local reflex mechanisms. In: Berns K, Dillman R, editors. Proc 4th Intl Conf on Climbing and Walking Robots. London: Professional Engineering Publishing, p 197-204.
114. Kirsch RF, Boskov D, Rymer WZ. 1994. Muscle stiffness during transient and continuous movements of cat muscle: perturbation characteristics and physiological relevance. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 41:758-70.
115. Koditschek DE, Full RJ, Buehler M. 2004. Mechanical aspects of legged locomotion control. Arthropod Struct Dev 33:251-72.
116. Krishnakumar K. 1989. Micro-genetic algorithms for stationary and non-stationary function optimization. SPIE: Intelligent Control and Adaptive Systems 1:1196-32.
117. Kugler P, Turvey M. 1987. Information, natural law and the self-assembly of rhythmic movement. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
118. Lappin AK, Monroy JA, Pilarski JQ, Zepnewski ED, Pierotti DJ, Nishikawa KC. 2006. Storage and recovery of elastic potential energy powers ballistic prey capture in toads. J Exp Biol 209:2535-53.
119. Latash M. 1998. Neurophysiological basis of movement. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.
120. Liu KS, Fetcho JR. 1999. Laser ablations reveal functional relationship of segmental hindbrain neurons in zebrafish. Neuron 23:325-35.
121. Liu KS, Gray M, Otto SJ, Fetcho JR, Beattie CE. 2003. Mutations in deadly seven/notch la revewal developmental plasticity in the escape response circuit. J Neurosci 23:8159-66.
122. Loeb GE, Gans C. 1986. Electromyography for experimentalists. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
123. Loeb GE, Brown IE, Cheng EJ. 1999. A hierarchical foundation for models of sensorimotor control. Exp Brain Res 126:1-18.
124. Lorent K, Liu KS, Fetcho JR, Granato M. 2001. The zebrafish space cadet gene controls axonal pathfinding of neurons that modulate fast turning movements. Development 128:2131-42.
125. Mallett ES, Yamaguchi G, Birch JM, Nishikawa KC. 2001. Feeding motor patterns in anurans: insights from biomechanical modeling. Amer Zool 41:1364-74.
126. Mangan EV, Kingsley DA, Quinn RD, Chiel HJ. 2002. Development of a peristaltic endoscope. IEEE Intl Conf Robotics and Automation (ICRA'02), Washington DC.
127. Mangan EV, Kingsley DA, Quinn RD, Sutton GP, Mansour JM, Chiel HJ. 2005. A biologically inspired gripping device. Industrial Robot 32:49-54.
128. Matthews PBC. 1959. The dependence of tension upon extension in the stretch reflex of the soleus muscle of the decerebrate cat. J Physiol 147:521-46.
129. Matthews PBC. 1972. Mammalian muscle receptors and their central actions. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
130. Matthews PBC, Stein RB. 1969. The sensitivity of muscle spindle afferents to small sinusoidal changes of length. J Physiol 200:723-13.
131. Matthews PBC, Watson JDG. 1981. Effect of vibrating agonist or antagonist muscle on the reflex response to sinusoidal displacement of the human forearm. J Physiol 321:297-316.
132. McClintock JM, Carlson R, Mann D, Prince VE. 2001. Consequences of Hox gene duplication in the vertebrates: an investigation of the zebrafish hox paralogue group 1 genes. Development 128:2471-84.
133. McClintock JM, Kheirbek MA, Prince VE. 2002. Knockdown of duplicated zebrafish hoxb1 genes reveals distinct roles in hindbrain patterning and a novel mechanism of duplicated gene retention. Development 129:2339-54.
134. McMahan W, et al. (2006) Field trials and testing of the OctArm continuum manipulator. IEEE Intl Conf Robotics and Automation, Orlando, FL.
135. McMahon TA. 1985. The role of compliance in mammalian running gaits. J Exp Biol 115:263-82.
136. McMahon TA, Cheng GC. 1990. The mechanics of running: how does stiffness couple with speed? J Biomech 23:65-78.
137. Moon BR. 2000. The mechanics of swallowing and the muscular control of diverse behaviours in gopher snakes. J Exp Biol 203:2589-601.
138. Moritz CT, Farley CT. 2003. Human hopping on damped surfaces: strategies for adjusting leg mechanics. Proc Roy Soc Lond Ser B 270:1741-6.
139. Moritz CT, Farley CT. 2005. Human hopping on very soft elastic surfaces: implications for muscle pre-stretch and elastic energy storage in locomotion. J Exp Biol 208:939-49.
140. Morton DW, Chiel HJ. 1993. In vivo buccal nerve activity that distinguishes ingestion from rejection can be used to predict behavioral transitions in Aplysia. J Comp Physiol A 172:17-32.
141. Morton D, Chiel H. 1994. Neural architectures for adaptive behavior. Trends Neurosci 17:413-20.
142. Mu L, Ritzmann RE. 2005. Kinematics and motor activity during tethered walking and turning in the cockroach, Blaberus discoidalis. J Comp Physiol A 191:1037-54.
143. Muller UK, van Leeuwen JL. 2004. Swimming of larval zebrafish: ontogeny of body waves and implications for locomotory development. J Exp Biol 207:853-68.
144. Nauwelaerts S, Aerts P. 2003. Propulsive impulses as a covarying performance measure in the comparison of the kinematics of swimming and jumping in frogs. J Exp Biol 206:4341-51.
145. Nauwelaerts S, Stamhuis E, Aerts P. 2005. Swimming and jumping in a semi-aquatic frog, Rana esculenta. Animal Biol 55:3-15.
146. Nelson GM, Quinn RD. 1999. Posture control of a cockroach-like robot. IEEE Control Syst 19:9-14.
147. Nelson GM, Quinn RD. 2001. A numerical solution to inverse kinematics for swing control of a cockroach-like robot. Proceedings of Climbing and Walking Robots Conference (CLAWAR'01), Karlsruhe, Germany.
148. Nelson GM, Quinn RD, Bachmann RJ, Flannigan WC, Ritzmann RE, Watson JT. 1997. Design and simulation of a cockroach-like hexapod robot. Proc IEEE Intl Conf Robotics and Automation, Albuquerque, NM.
149. Neustadter DM, Chiel HJ. 2004. Imaging freely moving subjects using continuous interleaved orthogonal magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Reson Imaging 22:329-13.
150. Neustadter DM, Drushel RF, Chiel HJ. 2002a. Kinematics of the buccal mass during swallowing based on magnetic resonance imaging in intact, behaving Aplysia californica. J Exp Biol 205:939-58.
151. Neustadter DM, Drushel RF, Crago PE, Adams BW, Chiel HJ. 2002b. A kinematic model of swallowing in Aplysia californica based on radula/odontophore kinematics and in vivo magnetic resonance images. J Exp Biol 205:3177-206.
152. Neustadter DM, Herman RL, Drushel RF, Chestek DW, Chiel HJ. 2007. The kinematics of multifunctionality: comparisons of biting and swallowing in Aplysia californica. J Exp Biol 210:238-60.
153. Nichols TR. 1994. A biomechanical perspective on spinal mechanisms of coordinated muscular action: an architecture principle. Acta Anatomica 151:1-13.
154. Nichols TR. 1999. Receptor mechanisms underlying heterogenic reflexes among the triceps surae muscles of the cat. J Neurophysiol 81:467-78.
155. Nichols TR, Cope TC. 2004. Cross-bridge mechanisms underlying the history-dependent properties of muscle spindles and stretch reflexes. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 82:569-76.
156. Nichols TR, Houk JC. 1976. The improvement in linearity and regulation of stiffness that results from action of the stretch reflex. J Neurophysiol 39:119-42.
157. Nichols TR, Cope TC, Abelew TA. 1999a. Rapid spinal mechanisms of motor coordination. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 27:255-84.
158. Nichols TR, Lin DC, Huyghues-Despointes CM. 1999b. The role of musculoskeletal mechanics in motor coordination. Prog Brain Res 123:369-78.
159. Nishikawa KC. 1999. Neuromuscular control of prey capture in frogs. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 354:941-54.
160. Novakovic VA, Sutton GP, Neustadter DM, Beer RD, Chiel HJ. 2006. Mechanical reconfiguration mediates swallowing and rejection in Aplysia californica. J Comp Physiol A 192:857-70.
161. Pearson KG. 1995. Proprioceptive regulation of locomotion. Curr Opin Neurobiol 5:786-91.
162. Pearson KG. 2000. Motor systems. Curr Opin Neurobiol 10:649-54.
163. Pearson KG, Iles JF. 1971. Innervation of coxal depressor muscles in the cockroach, Periplaneta americana. J Exp Biol 54:215-32.
164. Pearson KG, Misiaszek JE, Fouad K. 1998. Enhancement and resetting of locomotor activity by muscle afferents. In: Kiehn O, Harris-Warrick RM, Jordan LM, Hultborn H, Kudo N, editors. Neuronal mechanisms for generating locomotor activity, p 203-15.
165. Pfeiffer F, Eltze J, Weidemann HJ. 1994. The TUM walking machine. In: Jamshidi M, Nguyen C, Lumia R, Yuh J, editors. Intelligent automation and soft computing 2. Albuquerque: TSI Press.
166. Pirtle TJ, Satterlie RA. 2004. Cellular mechanisms underlying swim acceleration in the pteropod mollusk Clione limacina. Int Comp Biol 44:37-46.
167. Pringle JWS. 1949. The excitation and contraction of the flight muscles of insects. J Physiol (Lond) 108:226-32.
168. Quinn RD, Nelson GM, Ritzmann RE, Bachmann RJ, Kingsley DA, Offi JT, Allen TJ. 2003. Parallel strategies for implementing biological principles into mobile robots. Int J Robotics Res 22:169-86.
169. Raibert M. 1986. Legged Robots that Balance. Cambridge: MIT Press.
170. Rassier DE, Herzog W. 2004. Considerations on the history dependence of muscle contraction. J Appl Physiol 96:49-427.
171. Richardson AG, Slotine JJE, Bizzi E, Tresch MC. 2005. Intrinsic musculoskeletal properties stabilize wiping movements in the spinalized frog. J Neurosci 25:3181-91.
172. Ritzmann RE, Quinn RD, Watson JT, Zill SN. 2000. Insect walking and biorobotics: a relationship with mutual benefits. Bioscience 50:23-33.
173. Ritzmann RE, Quinn RD, Fischer MS. 2004. Convergent evolution and locomotion through complex terrain by insects, vertebrates and robots. Arthropod Struct Dev 33:361-79.
174. Roberts TJ, Marsh RL, Weyand PG, Taylor CR. 1997. Muscular force in running turkeys: the economy of minimizing work. Science 275:1113-15.
175. Ross KT, Fan RH, Nichols TR. 2002. Distribution of force feedback during spontaneous locomotion in premammillary cats. Soc Neurosci Abstr 28.
176. Ross KT, Huyghues-Despointes CM, Nichols TR. 2003. Heterogenic feedback among quadriceps and ankle extensors during spontaneous locomotion in premammillary cats. Soc Neurosci Abstr 29.
177. Rutter BL, Mu L, Ritzmann RE, Quinn RD. 2007. Transforming Insect Electromyograms into Pneumatic Muscle Control. Proc of International Conf on Robotics and Automation, Rome.
178. Saranli U, Buehler M, Koditschek D. 2001. RHex, a simple and highly mobile hexapod robot. Int J Robotics Res 20:616-31.
179. Satterlie RA. 1985. Reciprocal inhibition and postinhibitory rebound produce reverberation in a locomotor pattern generator. Science 229:402-4.
180. Satterlie RA. 1991. Electrophysiology of swim musculature in the pteropod mollusc Clione limacina. J Exp Biol 159:285-301.
181. Satterlie RA. 1993. Neuromuscular organization in the swimming system of the pteropod mollusc Clione limacina. J Exp Biol 181:119-40.
182. Satterlie RA, Spencer AN. 1985. Swimming in the pteropod mollusc, Clione limacina. J Exp Biol 116:205-22.
183. Satterlie RA, Norekian TP. 1995. Serotonin modulation of swimming speed in the pteropod mollusk, Clione limacina. III. Cerebral neurons. J Exp Biol 198:917-30.
184. Satterlie RA, Norekian TP. 2001. Mechanisms of locomotory speed change: the pteropod solution. Amer Zool 41:1001-8.
185. Satterlie RA, LaBarbera M, Spencer AN. 1985. Swimming in the pteropod mollusc, Clione limacina. I. Behaviour and morphology. J Exp Biol 116:189-204.
186. Satterlie RA, Goslow GE, Reyes A. 1990. Two types of striated muscle suggest two-geared swimming in the pteropod mollusc Clione limacina. J Exp Zool 225:131-40.
187. Satterlie RA, Norekian TP, Jordan S, Kazilek CJ. 1995. Serotonin modulation of swimming speed in the pteropod mollusc Clione limacina. I. Serotonin immunoreactivity in the central nervous system and wings. J Exp Biol 198:895-904.
188. Satterlie RA, Norekian TP, Pirtle TJ. 2000. Serotonin-induced spike narrowing in a locomotor pattern generator permits increase in cycle frequency during accelerations. J Neurophysiol 83:2163-70.
189. Spagna JC, Goldman DI, Lin P-C, Koditschek DE, Full RJ. 2007. Distributed mechanical feedback in arthropods and robots simplifies control of rapid running on challenging terrain. Bioinsp Biomim 2:9-18.
190. Sponberg S, Chang C, Full RJ. 2005. Feedforward, sensory independent control in cockroaches running over rough surfaces. Society of Integrative and Comparative Biology Annual Meeting & Exhibition Final Program and Abstracts. Jan 4-8 San Diego, CA.
191. Sponberg S, Spence A, Full RJ. 2006. Testing Neural Control Models for Antenna-based Tactile Navigation in Cockroaches. Society of Integrative and Comparative Biology Annual Meeting & Exhibition Final Program and Abstracts. Jan 4-8 Orlando, FL.
192. Sprayberry JD, Daniel TL. 2007. Flower tracking in hawk moth: behaviour and energetics. J Exp Biol 210:35-47.
193. Sutton GP, Macknin JB, Gartman SS, Sunny GP, Beer RD, Crago PE, Neustadter DM, Chiel HJ. 2004a. Passive hinge forces in the feeding apparatus of Aplysia aid retraction during biting but not during swallowing. J Comp Physiol A 190:501-14.
194. Sutton GP, Mangan EV, Neustadter DM, Beer RD, Crago PE, Chiel HJ. 2004b. Neural control exploits changing mechanical advantage and context dependence to generate different feeding responses in Aplysia. Biol Cybern 91:333-45.
195. Thelen E, Smith L. 1994. A dynamic system approach to the development of cognition and action. Cambridge: MIT Press.
196. Thorsen DH, Cassidy JJ, Hale ME. 2004. Swimming of larval zebrafish: fin-axis coordination and implications for function and neural control. J Exp Biol 207:4175-83.
197. Ting LH, Blickhan R, Full RJ. 1994. Dynamic and static stability in hexapedal runners. J Exp Biol 197:251-69.
198. Ting LH, MacPherson JM. 2005. A limited set of muscle synergies for force control during a postural task. J Neurophysiol 93:609-13.
199. Tu MS, Daniel TL. 2004. Submaximal power output from the dorsolongitudinal flight muscles of the hawkmoth Manduca sexta. J Exp Biol 407:4651-62.
200. Uyeno TA, Kier WM. 2005. Functional morphology of the cephalopod buccal mass: a novel joint type. J Morphol 264:211-22.
201. Vaidyanathan R, Chiel HJ, Quinn RD. 2000. A hydrostatic robot for marine applications. Robotics Autonomous Syst 30:103-13.
202. Van Damme R, Vanhooydonck B, Aerts P, De Vree F. 2003. The evolution of lizard locomotion: context and constraint. In: Bels V, Gase J, Casinos A, editors. Biomechanics and evolution. Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers, p 267-82.
203. Van Eeden FJM, et al. 1996. Mutations affecting somite formation and patterning in the zebrafish, Danio rerio. Development 123:153-64.
204. Warman EN, Chiel HJ. 1995. A new technique for chronic single unit extracellular recording in freely behaving animals using pipette electrodes. J Neurosci Methods 57:16-169.
205. Watson JT, Ritzmann RE. 1998. Leg kinematics and muscle activity during treadmill running in the cockroach, Blaberus discoidalis: I. Slow running. J Comp Physiol 182:11-22.
206. Wood RJ, Avadhanula S, Fearing RS. 2003. Microrobotics using composite materials: the micromechanical flying insect thorax. IEEE Intl Conf Robotics and Automation 2003. p 1842-49.
207. Ye H, Morton DW, Chiel HJ. 2006a. Neuromechanics of coordination during swallowing in Aplysia californica. J Neurosci 26:1470-85.
208. Ye H, Morton DW, Chiel HJ. 2006b. Neuromechanics of multifunctionality during rejection in Aplysia californica. J Neurosci 26:10743-55.
209. Yu S-Y, Crago PE, Chiel HJ. 1999. Biomechanical properties and a kinetic simulation model of the smooth muscle 12 in the buccal mass of Aplysia. Biol Cybern 81:505-13.
210. Zottoli SJ, Faber DS. 2000. The Mauthner Cell: What has it taught us? Neuroscientist 6:25-37.