The effects of vitamin d deficiency and insufficiency on the endocrine and paracrine systems

Biological Research for Nursing

Volumn 9, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 117-129

  Alpert, Patricia T ^a,c   Shaikh, Ulfat ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c NONE

Author keywords

25 hydroxyvitamin D; Cholecalciferol; Ergocalciferol; Hypovitaminosis D; Nutritional rickets; Osteomalacia; Vitamin D deficiency

Indexed keywords

COLECALCIFEROL; ERGOCALCIFEROL;

ARTICLE; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; FEMALE; HUMAN; INFANT; METABOLISM; NEWBORN; NUTRITIONAL VALUE; PARACRINE SIGNALING; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PREGNANCY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

CHILD, PRESCHOOL; CHOLECALCIFEROL; ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DISEASES; ERGOCALCIFEROLS; FEMALE; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; NUTRITIVE VALUE; PARACRINE COMMUNICATION; PREGNANCY; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

EID: 34548737069     PISSN: 10998004     EISSN: 15524175     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1099800407308057     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. (2003). The prophylactic requirement and the toxicity of vitamin D. Pediatrics, 1963, 512-530.
2. Armas, L.A.G., Hollis, B.W., & Heaney, R.P. (2006). Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 89, 5387-5391.
3. Barsony, J. (1999). Vitamin D receptor translocation. In M. F. Holick (Ed.), Vitamin D: Physiology, molecular biology, and clinical application (pp. 129-148). Totowa, NJ: Humana.
4. Bhowmick, S.K., Johnson, K.R., & Retting, K.R. (1991). Rickets caused by vitamin D deficiency in breast-fed infants in the southern United States. American Journal of Diseases in Children, 145, 127-130.
5. Calvo, M.S., & Whiting, S.J. (2003). Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in Canada and the United States: Importance to health status and efficacy of current food fortification and dietary supplement use. Nutrition Review, 61, 107-113.
6. Calvo, M.S., Whiting, S.J., & Barton, C.N. (2004). Vitamin D fortification in the United States and Canada: Current status and data needs. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80 (6 suppl). 1710S - 1716S.
7. Calvo, M.S., Whiting, S.J., & Barton, C.N. (2005). Vitamin D intake: A global perspective of current status. Journal of Nutrition, 135, 310-316.
8. Canto-Costa, M.H.S., Kunii, I., & Hauache, O.M. (2006). Body fat and cholecalciferol supplementation in elderly homebound individuals. Brazil Journal of Medical Biological Research, 39, 91-98.
9. Cantorna, M.T. (2006). Vitamin D and its role in immunology: Multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Progress in Biophysiology and Molecular Biology, 92, 60-64.
10. Cantorna, M.T., Hayes, C.E., & DeLuca, H. F. (1998). 1,25-Dihydroxyholecalciferol inhibits the progression of arthritis in murine models of human arthritis. Journal of Nutrition, 128, 68-72.
11. Cantorna, M.T., & Mahon, B.D. (2004). Mounting evidence for vitamin D as an environmental factor affecting autoimmune disease prevalence. Experiments in Biology and Medicine (Maywood). 229, 1136-1142.
12. Cantorna, M.T., & Mahon, B.D. (2005). D-hormone and the immune system. Journal of Rheumatology, 76 (suppl), 11-20.
13. Cantorna, M.T., Zhu, Y., Froicu, M., & Wittke, A. (2004). Vitamin D status, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, and the immune system. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80 (6 suppl). 1717S - 1720S.
14. Chiu, K., Chu, A., Go, V., & Soad, M. (2004). Hypovitaminosis D is associated with insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79, 820-825.
15. Clemens, T.L., Adams, J.S., Henderson, S.L., & Holick, M.F. (1982). Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesise vitamin D3. Lancet, 1, 74-76.
16. Cooper, C., Javaid, K., Westlake, S., Harvey, N., & Dennison, E. (2005). Developmental origins of osteoporosis fracture: The role of maternal vitamin D insufficiency. Journal of Nutrition, 135, 2728S - 2734S.
17. Cross, H.S., Bareis, P., Hofer, H., Bischof, M.G., Bajma, E., & Kriwanek, S. (2001). 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3-1α-hydroxylase and vitamin D receptor gene expression in human colonic mucosa is elevated during early cancerogenesis. Steroid, 66, 287-292.
18. Cross, N.A., Hillman, L.S., Allen, S.H., Krause, G.F., & Vieira, N.E. (1995). Calcium homeostatis and bone metabolism during pregnancy, lactation, and postweaning: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61, 514-523.
19. Dawodu, A., Agarwal, M., Hossain, M., Kochiyil, J., & Zayed, R. (2003). Hypovitaminosis D and vitamin D deficiency in exclusively breast-feeding infants and their mothers in summer: A justification for vitamin D supplementation of breast-feeding infants. Journal of Pediatrics, 142, 169-173.
20. Dawson-Hughes, B., Heaney, R.P., Holick, M.F., Lips, P., Meunier, P.J., & Vieth, R. (2005). Estimates of optimal vitamin D status. Osteoporosis International, 16, 713-716.
21. Doron, D., Hershkop, K., & Granot, E. (2001). Nutritional deficits resulting from an almond-based infant diet. Clinical Nutrition, 20, 259-261.
22. Dunn-Emke, S.R., Weidner, G., Pettengill, E.B., Marlin, R.O., Chi, C., & Ornish, D.M. (2005). Nutrient adequacy of a very low-fat vegan diet. Journal of the American Dietician Association, 105, 1442-1446.
23. Egan, K.M., Sosman, J.A., & Blot, W.J. (2005). Sunlight and reduced risk of cancer: Is the real story vitamin D? Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 97, 161-163.
24. EURODIAB Substudy 2 Study Group. (1999). Vitamin D supplement in early childhood and risk for type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia, 42, 51-54.
25. Eyles, D., Brown, J., Mackey-Sim, A., McGrath, J., & Feron, F. (2003). Vitamin D3 and brain development. Neuroscience, 118, 641-653.
26. Feskanich, D., Willet, W.C., & Colditz, G.A. (2003). Calcium, vitamin D, milk consumption, and hip fractures: A prospective study among postmenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 77, 504-511.
27. Fitzpatrick, S., Sheard, N.F., Clark, N.G., & Ritter, M.L. (2000). Vitamin D-deficient rickets: A multifactorial disease. Nutrition Review, 58, 218-222.
28. Fraser, D.R. (1995). Vitamin D (review). Lancet, 345, 104-107.
29. Freedman, D.M., Doesemeci, M., & McGlynn, K. (2002). Sunlight and mortality from breast, ovarian, colon, prostate, and non-melanoma skin cancer: Composite death certificate based case-control study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 59, 257-262.
30. Garland, C.F., Garland, F.C., Gorham, E.D., Lipkin, M., Newmark, H., Mohr, S.B., et al. (2006). The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 252-261.
31. Giovannucci, E., Liu, Y., Rimm, E.B., Hollis, B.W., Fuchs, C.S., Stampfer, M.J., et al. (2006). Prospective study of predictors of vitamin D status and cancer incidence and mortality in men. Journal of Nutritional Clinical Investigation, 98, 451-459.
32. Gloth, F.M., Gundberg, C.M., Hollis, B.W., Haddad, J.G., & Tobin, J.D. (1995). Vitamin D deficiency in homebound elderly persons. Journal of the American Medical Association, 274, 1683-1686.
33. Gorham, E.D., Garland, C.F., Garland, F.C., Grant, W.B., Mohr, S.B., Lipkin, M., et al. (2005). Vitamin D and prevention of colorectal cancer. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 97, 179-194.
34. Grant, W.B. (2002). An estimate of premature cancer mortality in the US due to inadequate doses of solar ultraviolet-B radiation. Cancer, 94, 1867-1875.
35. Grant, W.B. (2004). Geographic variation of prostate cancer mortality rates in the United States: Implications for prostate cancer risk related to vitamin D. International Journal of Cancer, 111, 470-471.
36. Gregori, S., Giarratana, N., Smiroldo, S., Uskokovic, M., & Adorini, L.A. (2002). A 1 α, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 analog enhances regulatory t-cells and arrests autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice. Diabetes, 51, 1367-1374.
37. Gross, M.D. (2005). Vitamin D and calcium in the prevention of prostate and colon cancer: New approaches for the identification of needs. Journal of Nutrition, 135, 326-331.
38. Guillemant, J., Allemandou, A., Cabrol, S., Peres, G., & Guillemant, S. (1998). Vitamin D status in the adolescent: Seasonal variations and effects of winter supplementation with vitamin D3. Archives in Pediatrics, 5, 1211-1215.
39. Hanley, D., & Davison, K.S. (2005). Vitamin D insufficiency. American Journal of Nutrition, 135, 332-337.
40. Harris, S.S. (2005). Vitamin D in type 1 diabetes prevention. Journal of Nutrition, 135, 323-325.
41. Harris, S.S. (2006). Vitamin D and African Americans. Journal of Nutrition, 136, 1126-1129.
42. Harris, S.S., Soteriades, E., Coolidge, J.A., Mudgal, S., & Dawson-Hughes, B. (2000). Vitamin D insufficiency and hyperparathyroidism in a low income, multiracial, elderly population. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 85, 4125-4130.
43. Hayward, J., Stein, M.T., & Gibson, M.I. (1987). Nutritional rickets in San Diego. American Journal of Disabled Children, 11, 1060-1062.
44. Heaney, R.P. (2003). Long-latency deficiency disease: Insights from calcium and vitamin D. American Journal of Nutrition, 78, 912-919.
45. Heaney, R.P., Davies, K.M., Chen, T.C., Holic, M.F., & Barger-Lux, M.J. (2003). Human serum 25-hydroxy-cholecalciferol response to extended oral dosing with cholecalciferol. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 77, 204-210.
46. Hewison, M., Zehnder, D., Chakraverty, R., & Adams, J.S. (2004). Vitamin D and barrier function: A novel role for extra-renal 1 alpha-hydroxylase. Molecule Cell and Endocrinology, 215, 31-38.
47. Holick, M.F. (1987). Photosynthesis of vitamin D in the skin: Effect of environmental and life-style variables. Federal Proceedings, 46, 1876-1882.
48. Holick, M.F. (1994). McCollum Award Lecture, 1994: Vitamin D-New horizons for the 21st century. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 60, 619-630.
49. Holick, M.F. (1998). Clinical efficacy of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, and its analogues in the treatment of psoriasis. Retinoids, 14, 12-17.
50. Holick, M.F. (2002). Calcium and vitamin D in human health. In Calcium in childhood (pp. 83-93). Vevey, Switzerland: Nestle Nutrition.
51. Holick, M.F. (2004 a). Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular diseases. American Journal of Nutrition, 80 (suppl). 1678S - 1688S.
52. Holick, M.F. (2004 b). Vitamin D: Importance in the prevention of cancer, type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79, 362-371.
53. Holick, M.F. (2006). Vitamin D: Its role in cancer prevention and treatment. Biophysic and Molecular Biology, 92, 49-59.
54. Holick, M.F. (2007). Vitamin D deficiency. New England Journal of Medicine, 357 (3). 266-281.
55. Hollis, B.W. (2005). Circulating 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels indicative of vitamin D sufficiency: Implications for establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D. Journal of Nutrition, 135, 317-322.
56. Hollis, B.W., & Wagner, C.L. (2004). Vitamin D requirements during lactation: High-dose maternal supplementation as therapy to prevent hypovitaminosis D for both the mother and the nursing infant. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80 (6 suppl). 1752S - 1758S.
57. Hyppnen, E., Lr, E., Reunanen, A., Jrvelin, M.R., & Virtanen, S.M. (2001). Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: A birth-cohort study. Lancet, 358, 1500-1503.
58. Jablonski, N.G., & Chaplin, G. (2000). The evolution of human skin coloration. Journal of Human Evolution, 39, 57-106.
59. Jasinghe, V.J., Perera, C.O., & Barlow, P.J. (2005). Bioavailability of vitamin D2 from irradiated mushrooms: An in vivo study. British Journal of Nutrition, 93, 951-955.
60. Jesudason, D., Need, A.G., Horowitz, M., O' Loughlin, P.D., Morris, H.A., & Nordin, B.E.C. (2002). Relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and bone resorption markers in vitamin D insufficiency. Bone, 31, 626-630.
61. John, E.M., Schwartz, G.G., Dreon, D.M., & Koo, J. (1999). Vitamin D and breast cancer risk: The NHANE I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study, 1971-1975 to 1992. Cancer Epidemiologic Biomarker Prevalence, 8, 399-406.
62. Jones, G., Strugnell, S.A., & DeLuca, H.F. (1998). Current understanding of the molecular actions of vitamin D. Physiology Review, 78, 1193-1231.
63. Kaper, B.P., Romness, M.J., & Urbanek, P.J. (2000). Nutritional rickets: Report of four cases diagnosed at orthopaedic evaluation. American Journal of Orthopedics, 29, 214-218.
64. Kreiter, S.R., Schwartz, R.P., Kirkman, H.N., Charlton, P.A., Calikoglu, A.S., & Davenport, M.L. (2000). Nutritional rickets in African American breast-fed infants. Journal of Pediatrics, 137, 153-157.
65. Lips, P. (2004). Which circulating level of 25-hydroxyvitamin D is appropriate ? Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 89, 90, 611-614.
66. Lips, P. (2006). Vitamin D physiology. Proceedings in Biophysics and Molecular Biology, 92, 4-8.
67. MacDonald, P. (1999). Molecular biology of the vitamin D receptor. In M. F. Holick (Ed.), Vitamin D: Physiology, molecular biology, and clinical application (pp. 109-128). Totowa, NJ: Humana.
68. Malabanan, A., Veronikis, I.E., & Holick, M.F. (1998). Redefining vitamin D insufficiency. Lancet, 351, 805-806.
69. Matsuoka, L.Y., Ide, L., Wortsman, J., MacLaughlin, J., & Holick, M.F. (1987). Sunscreens suppress cutaneous vitamin D3 synthesis. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 64, 1165-1168.
70. Mawer, E.B., Hayes, M.E., Heys, S.E., Davis, M., White, A., Stewart, M.F., et al. (1994). Constitutive synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 by a human small cell lung cell line. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 79, 554-560.
71. Meier, C., Woitge, H.W., Witte, K., Lemmer, B., & Seibel, M.J. (2004). Supplementation with oral vitamin D3 and calcium during winter prevents seasonal bone loss: A randomized controlled open-label prospective trial. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 19, 1221-1230.
72. Merlino, L.A., Curtis, J., Mikuls, T.R., Cerhan, J.R., Criswell, L.A., & Sang, K.G. (2004). Vitamin D intake is inversely associated with rheumatoid arthritis: Results from the Iowa Women's Health Study. Arthritis and Rheumatology, 50, 72-77.
73. Munch, S., & Shapiro, S. (2006). The silent thief: Osteoporosis and women's health care across the life span. Health and Social Work, 31, 44-53.
74. Munger, K.L., Zhang, S.M., O'Reilly, E., Hernan, M.A., Olek, M.J., Wilett W.C., et al. (2004). Vitamin D intake and incidence of multiple sclerosis. Neurology, 62, 60-65.
75. Office of Dietary Supplements. (2004). Dietary supplement fact sheet: Vitamin D. National Institute of Health Clinical Center, National Institute of Health. Retrieved August 12, 2006, from http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/ factsheets/vitamind.asp
76. Ovesen, L., Andersen, R., & Jakobsen, J. (2003). Geographical differences in vitamin D status, with particular reference to European countries. Proceedings in Nutrition and Science, 62, 813-821.
77. Pedersen, P., Michaelsen, K.F., & Molgaard, C. (2003). Children with nutritional rickets referred to hospitals in Copenhagen during a 10-year period. Acta Paediatrica, 92, 87-90.
78. Plotnikoff, G.A., & Quigley, J.M. (2003). Prevalence of severe hypovitaminosis D in patients with persistent, nonspecific musculoskeletal pain. Mayo Clinical Proceedings, 78, 1463-1470.
79. Prentice, A. (2003). Micronutrients and bone mineral content of the mother, fetus and newborn. Journal of Nutrition, 133 (suppl), 1693S - 1699S.
80. Prosser, D.E., & Jones, G. (2004). Enzymes involved in the activation and inactivation of vitamin D. Trends in Biomedicine and Science, 29, 664-673.
81. Raiten, D.J., & Picciano, M.F. (2004). Vitamin D and health in the 21st century: Bone and beyond. Executive Summary. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80 (6 suppl). 1673S - 1677S.
82. Rajakumar, K., & Thomas, S.B. (2005). Reemerging nutritional rickets: A historical perspective. Archives in Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 159, 335-341.
83. Robsahm, T.E., Tretli, S., Dahlback, A., & Moan, J. (2004). Vitamin D3 from sunlight may improve the prognosis of breast-, colon- and prostate cancer (Norway). Cancer Causes & Control, 15, 149-158.
84. Richie, L.D., Fung, E.B., Halloran, B.P., Turnlund, J. R., Van Loan, M. D., Cann, C. E., et al. (1998). A longitudinal study of calcium homeostatis during human pregnancy and lactation and after resumption of menses. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 67, 693-701.
85. Sahota, O., Mundey, M.K., San, P., Godber, I.M., Lawson, N., & Hosking, D.J. (2004). The relationship between vitamin D and parathyroid hormone: Calcium homeostasis, bone turnover, and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with established osteoporosis. Bone, 35, 312-319.
86. Samanek, A.J., Croager, E.J., Gies, P., Milne, E., Prince, R., McMichael, A.J., et al. (2006). Estimates of beneficial and harmful sun exposure times during the year for major Australian population centers. Medical Journal of Australia, 184, 338-341.
87. Schneider, B., Weber, B., Frensch, A., Stein, J., & Fritz, J. (2000). Vitamin D in schizophrenia, major depression, and alcoholism. Journal of Neurological Transmission, 107, 839-842.
88. Schwartz, G.G. (2005). Vitamin D and the epidemiology of prostate cancer. Seminars and Dialogue, 18, 276-289.
89. Shah, M., Salhab, N., Patterson, D., & Seikaly, M.D. (2000). Nutritional rickets still affects children in North Texas. Texas Medicine, 96, 64-68.
90. Shaikh, U., & Alpert, P.T. (2006). Nutritional rickets in Las Vegas, Nevada. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism, 19 (3). 5209-5212.
91. Sonnenberg, A., McCarty, D.J., & Jacobsen, S.J. (1991). Geographic variation of inflammatory bowel disease within the United States. Gastroenterology, 100, 143-149.
92. Specker, B.L., Tsang, R.C., & Hollis, B.W. (1985). Effect of race and diet on human-milk vitamin D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D. American Journal of Disabled Children, 139, 1134-1137.
93. Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intake, Food Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. (1997). Vitamin D. In Dietary reference intakes for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride (pp. 250-287). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
94. Stene, L.C., & Jones, G. (2003). Use of cod liver oil during the first year of life is associated with lower risk of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes: A large, population-based, case-control study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 1128-1134.
95. Stumpf, W.E., & Privette, T.H. (1989). Light, Vit-D and psychiatry: Role of 1,25 dihydroxy Vit-D3 (soltriol) in etiology and therapy of seasonal affective disorder and other mental processes. Psychopharmacology (Berlin). 97, 285-294.
96. Suda, T., Ueno, Y., Fujii, K., & Shinki, T. (2002). Vitamin D and bone. Journal of Cell Biochemistry, 88, 259-266.
97. Tangpricha, V., Flanagan, J.N., Whitlatch, L.W., Tseng, C.C., Chen, T.C., Holt, P.R., et al. (2001). 25-Hydroxyvitamin D-1α-hydroxylase in normal and malignant colon tissue. Lancet, 357, 1673-1674.
98. Tomashek, K.M., Nesby, S., Scanlon, K.S., Cogswell, M.E., Powell, U.D., Mellinger-Bridsong, A., et al. (2001). Nutritional rickets in Georgia. Pediatrics, 107. Retrieved from http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/4/e45
99. Trang, H.M., Cole, D.B.C., Robin, L.A., Pierratos, A., Siu, S., & Vieth, R. (1998). Evidence that vitamin D-3 increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D more efficiently than does vitamin D-2. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 68, 854-858.
100. Trivedi, D.P., Doll, R., & Khaw, K.T. (2003). Effect of four monthly oral vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) supplementation on fractures and mortality in men and women living in the community: Randomized double blind controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 326, 469.
101. Tuohimaa, P., Tenkanen, L., Ahonen, M., Lumme, S., Jellum, E., Hallmans, G., et al. (2004). Both high and low levels of blood vitamin D are associated with a higher prostate cancer risk: A longitudinal, nested case-control study in the Nordic countries. International Journal of Cancer, 108, 104-108.
102. van den Berg, H. (1997). Bioavailability of vitamin D European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51 (suppl), S76 - S79.
103. van der Wielen, R.P., Lowik, M.R., van den Berg, H., de Groot, L.C., Haller, J., Moreiras, O., et al. (1995). Serum vitamin D concentrations among elderly people in Europe. Lancet, 346, 207-210.
104. Vieth, R. (2004). Why the optimal requirement for vitamin D3 is probably much higher than what is officially recommended for adults. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 89, 575-579.
105. Vieth, R., Chan, P.C., & MacFarlane, G.D. (2001). Efficacy and safety of vitamin D3 intake exceeding the lowest observed adverse effect level. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73, 288-294.
106. Vieth, R., Kimball, S., Hu, A., & Walfish, P.G. (2004). Randomized comparison of the effects of the vitamin D3 adequate intake versus 100 mcg (4000 IU) per day on biochemical responses and the well-being of patients. Nutrition Journal, 3, 8.
107. Vieth, R., Ladak, Y., & Walfish, P.G. (2003). Age-related changes in the 25-hydroxyvitamin D versus parathyroid hormone relationship suggest a different reason why older adults require more vitamin D. Journal of Endocrinology & Metabolism, 88, 185-191.
108. Weaver, C.M., & Fleet, J.C. (2004). Vitamin D requirements: Current and future. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80 (6 suppl). 1735S - 1739S.
109. Weisberg, P., Scanlon, K.S., Li, R., & Cogswell, M.E. (2004). Nutritional rickets among children in the United States: Review of cases reported between 1986 and 2003. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80 (suppl), 1697S - 1705S.
110. Whiting, S.J., & Calvo, M.S. (2005 a). Dietary recommendations for vitamin D: A critical need for functional end points to establish an estimated average requirement. Journal of Nutrition, 135, 304-309.
111. Whiting, S.J., & Calvo, M.S. (2005 b). Dietary recommendations to meet both endocrine and autocrine needs of vitamin D. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 97, 7-12.
112. Working Group of the Australian and New Zealand Bone and Mineral Society; Endocrine Society of Australia; and Osteoporosis Australia. (2005). Vitamin D and adult bone health in Australia and New Zealand: A position statement. Medical Journal of Australia, 182, 281-285.
113. Wortsman, J., Matsuoka, L.Y., Chen, T.C., Lu, Z., & Holick, M.F. (2000). Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72, 690-693.
114. Zehnder, D., Bland, R., Williams, M.C., McNinch, R.W., Howie, A.J., Stewart, P.M., et al. (2001). Extrarenal expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin d(3)-1 alpha-hydroxylase. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 86, 888-894.
115. Zella, J.B., & De Luca, H.F. (2003). Vitamin D and autoimmune diabetes. Journal of Cell Biochemistry, 88, 216-222.