American knowledge and global power

Diplomatic History

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 599-622

  Engerman, David C ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34548710380     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: 14677709     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.2007.00655.x     Document Type: Article

References (289)

1. The readiest introduction to Michel Foucault's ideas relevant here comes from two collections: Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon (New York, 1980) and Studies in Governmentality, ed. Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller (Chicago, 1991). For thought-provoking applications
2. see James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT, 1998)
3. Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences ofWealth and Society (Chicago, 1998).
4. There is a range of excellent scholarship on the connections between information and rule; see, for instance, C. A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870 (Cambridge, England, 1996)
5. Peter I. Holquist, "'Information Is the Alpha and Omega of Our Work': Bolshevik Surveillance in Pan-European Perspective," Journal of Modern History 69 (1997): 415-50
6. Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Cambridge, England, 1988). For an introduction to Francis Bacon's ideas, see Markku Peltonen, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Bacon (Cambridge, England, 2004). "Knowledge Is Power" was also the slogan of the Schoolhouse Rock series, appearing on American public television in the 1970s.
7. Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (New York, 1948).
8. Although this talk focuses on the relationship between American knowledge and global power since the 1940s, there were, of course, important connections that predate World War II; see, for instance, Lawrence Gelfand, The Inquiry: American Preparations for Peace, 1917-1919 (New Haven, CT, 1963)
9. Carol S. Gruber, Mars and Minerva: World War I and the Uses of Higher Learning in America (Baton Rouge, LA, 1975)
10. Vicente L. Rafael, "White Love: Surveillance and Nationalist Resistance in the U.S. Colonization of the Philippines," in Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease (Durham, NC, 1993)
11. Paul A. Kramer, "Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule between the British and United States Empires, 1880-1910," Journal of American History 88 (March 2002): 1315-53
12. and Neil Smith, American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2003).
13. In particular, work on cultural expansion - from Reinhold Wagnleiter, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Second World War (Chapel Hill, NC, 1994) to Victoria de Grazia
14. Irresistible Empire: America's Advance through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA, 2005).
15. On intellectuals and American expansion, see, most recently, Volker R. Berghahn, America and the Intellectual ColdWars in Europe: Shepard Stone between Philanthropy, Academy, and Diplomacy (Princeton, NJ, 2001)
16. Giles Scott-Smith, The Politics of Apolitical Culture: The Congress for Cultural Freedom, the CIA, and Post-War American Hegemony (New York, 2002).
17. On academics and foreign policy, see especially Allan A. Needell, "'Truth Is Our Weapon': Project TROY, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relations in the National Security State," Diplomatic History 17 (Summer 1993): 399-420
18. Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and "Nation Building" in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill, NC, 2000)
19. and, most recently, Bruce Kuklick, Blind Oracles: Intellectuals and War from Kennan to Kissinger (Princeton, NJ, 2006).
20. On ideas shaping (modern) American foreign policy, see especially Frank Ninkovich, Modernity and Power: A History of the Domino Theory in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1994)
21. William Appleman Williams, The Contours of American History (Cleveland, 1961)
22. and Michael Adas, Dominance by Design: Technological Imperatives and America's CivilizingMission (Cambridge, MA, 2006).
23. On ideas and ideologies in the Cold War, see especially Odd Arne Westad, "The New International History of the Cold War: Three (Possible) Paradigms," Diplomatic History 24 (Fall 2000): 551-65
24. Nigel Gould-Davies, "Rethinking the Role of Ideology in International Relations during the ColdWar," Journal of ColdWar Studies 1 (1999): 90-109
25. Anders Stephanson, Kennan and the Art of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA, 1989)
26. and Mark Kramer, "Ideology and the Cold War," Review of International Studies 25 (1999): 539-76.
27. See especially Rebecca S. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1997)
28. for overviews, see Roger L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities since World War II (Oxford, 1993)
29. Thomas Bender and Carl E. Schorske, eds., American Academic Culture in Transformation: Fifty Years, Four Disciplines (Princeton, NJ, 1997)
30. and David A. Hollinger, ed., The Humanities and the Dynamics of Inclusion since World War II (Baltimore, 2006).
31. On foreign area programs, see especially Robert A. McCaughey, International Studies and Academic Enterprise: A Chapter in the Enclosure of American Learning (New York, 1984).
32. Andrew Abbott and James T. Sparrow, "Hot War, Cold War: The Structures of Sociological Action," in Sociology in America: A History, ed. Craig Calhoun (Chicago, 2007)
33. David M. Ricci, The Tragedy of Political Science: Politics, Scholarship, and Democracy (New Haven, CT, 1984)
34. Ido Oren, Our Enemies and US: America's Rivalries and the Making of Political Science (Ithaca, NY, 2003)
35. Bruce Cumings, "Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies during and after the ColdWar," in Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War, ed. Christopher Simpson (New York, 1998)
36. Stephen F. Cohen, "Sovietology as Vocation," in his Rethinking the Soviet Experience (Oxford, 1985)
37. Carl E. Pletsch, "The Three Worlds, or the Division of Social Scientific Labor, circa 1950-1975," Comparative Studies in Society and History 23 (October 1981): 565-90.
38. Two New Press books make a general case about Cold War knowledge in strong terms, especially in their historical essays: Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York, 1997) and Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire.
39. Michael A. Bernstein, A Perilous Progress: Economists and Public Purpose in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, NJ, 2004), chaps. 4, 5
40. Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1995)
41. Laura Nader, "The Phantom Factor: Impact of the ColdWar on Anthropology," in Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University
42. Christopher Simpson, The Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-1960 (Oxford, 1994)
43. Sonja Amadae, Rationalizing Capitalist Democracy: The Cold War Origins of Rational Choice Liberalism (Chicago, 2003).
44. Trevor J. Barnes and Matthew Farish, "Between Regions: Science, Militarism, and American Geography from World War to Cold War," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 96 (December 2006): 807-26
45. Paul Forman, "Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as the Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 18 (1987): 147-229
46. Daniel Kevles, "The Cold War andHot Physics: Science, Security, and the American State, 1945-1956," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 20 (1990): 239-64
47. Jacob Darwin Hamblin, Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science (Seattle, 2005)
48. Nikolai Krementsov, The Cure: A Story of Cancer and Politics from the Annals of the ColdWar (Chicago, 2002)
49. George A. Reisch, How the ColdWar Transformed the Philosophy of Science: To the Icy Slopes of Logic (Cambridge, England, 2005).
50. One of the first major controversies over academic-government links was Project Camelot, which employed many well-known social scientists whose research abroad was used, quietly, for military purposes - see especially Herman, The Romance of American Psychology, chap. 6
51. and Irving Louis Horowitz, ed., The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship between Social Science and Practical Politics (Cambridge, MA, 1967).
52. On other episodes, see Ron Robin, The Making of the Cold War Enemy: Culture and Politics in the Military-Industrial Complex (Princeton, NJ, 2001), chaps. 7, 8
53. Eric Wakin, Anthropology Goes to War: Professional Ethics and Counterinsurgency in Thailand (Madison, WI, 1992)
54. and John Ernst, Forging a Fateful Alliance: Michigan State University and the Vietnam War (East Lansing, MI, 1998).
55. Variants of this argument appear in Immanuel Wallerstein, "The Unintended Consequences of Cold War Area Studies," in Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University
56. and Mark Solovey, "Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution," Social Studies of Science 31 (April 2001): 171-206.
57. For specific fields, see Douglas Allen, "Antiwar Asian Scholars and the Vietnam/IndochinaWar," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 21 (1989): 112-34
58. Susan Greenhalgh, "The Social Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, Institutional, and Political History of Twentieth-Century Demography," Comparative Studies in Society and History 38 ( January 1996): 50-52.
59. For some of the significant attacks on the Cold War academy, see Jesse Lemisch, On Active Service in War and Peace: Politics and Ideology in the American Historical Profession (Toronto, 1975)
60. and especially the essays collected in Theodore Roszak, ed., The Dissenting Academy (New York, 1968).
61. For a surprisingly detached analysis from the heat of the moment, see Adam Ulam, The Fall of the American University (New York, 1972).
62. For historical perspectives, see Julie A. Reuben, "Challenging the Academy in the 1960s: Radical Critiques of the University as a Site of Knowledge Production" (paper presented at AHA, 2000, in author's possession)
63. Ira Katznelson, "From the Street to the Lecture Hall: The 1960s," in Bender and Schorske, eds., American Academic Culture in Transformation
64. and two essays in Calhoun, ed., Sociology in America
65. Doug McAdam, "From Relevance to Irrelevance: The Curious Impact of the Sixties on Public Sociology"
66. and Immanuel Wallerstein, "The Culture of Sociology in Disarray: The Impact of 1968 on U.S. Sociologists."
67. These issues receive surprisingly brief attention in David Szanton, ed., The Politics of Knowledge: Area Studies and the Disciplines (Berkeley, CA, 2004).
68. For radicalism in Madison, the mother ship of revisionist diplomatic history, see Paul Buhle, ed., History and the New Left: Madison,Wisconsin, 1950-1970 (Philadelphia, 1990).
69. This essay focuses on the social sciences, about knowing friends and enemies, rather than the sciences - though the role of Cold War support for the sciences is an especially interesting story. See, for instance, John Krige, American Hegemony and the Postwar Reconstruction of Science in Europe (Cambridge, MA, 2006)
70. Stuart A. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993)
71. Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, MA, 1996)
72. and Social Studies of Science 31 (April 2001), a special issue on "Science and the State in the Cold War" edited by Mark Solovey.
73. The rise of "big science" is also connected to Cold War support; see, for instance, Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly, eds., Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research (Stanford, CA, 1992)
74. and James H. Capshew and Karen A. Rader, "Big Science: From Price to the Present," Osiris 2d ser. 7 (1992): 2-25.
75. For a skeptical review, see Roger L. Geiger, "Science, Universities, and National Defense, 1945-1970,"
76. ibid., 26-48.
77. For especially useful accounts of Talcott Parsons's vision of the behavioral sciences and Harvard's Department of Social Relations, see Howard Brick, Transcending Capitalism: Visions of a New Society in Modern American Thought (Ithaca, NY, 2006), chap. 4
78. Uta Gerhardt, Talcott Parsons: An Intellectual Biography (Cambridge, England, 2002), chap. 3
79. Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore, 2004), chap. 2
80. Jamie Cohen-Cole, "Thinking about Thinking in Cold War America" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 2004), chap. 2.
81. Also Robin, The Making of the Cold War Enemy, chap. 1
82. William Buxton, Talcott Parsons and the Capitalist Nation-State: Political Sociology as a Strategic Vocation (Toronto, 1985), pt. II
83. and Patrick L. Schmidt, "Towards aHistory of the Department of Social Relations" (B.A. honors thesis, Harvard University, 1978).
84. Letter to the editor, Washington Post, 19 August 1945
85. Gerhardt, Talcott Parsons, 150-51.
86. Carnegie Corporation of New York, "Proposal for a Study of the Role of Social Sciences in Modern Society," 12 November 1946 - in Rockefeller Foundation Records (Rockefeller Archive Center), Record Group 2, Series 1946-200, Box 326, Folder 2208.
87. "Plans for Future Work in Social Science" (November 1944), in Rockefeller Foundation Records, Record Group 3.1, Series 910, Box 3, Folder 18.
88. For more on Carnegie and behavioral science, see Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy (Middletown, CT, 1989), 161-75.
89. On the role of major foundations more generally, see Edward H. Berman, The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (Albany, NY, 1983), esp. chap. 4.
90. On celebrations of the late 1940s, see Clyde Kluckhohn, A Mirror for Man: A Survey of Human Behavior and Social Attitudes (New York, 1949), 288
91. Clyde Kluckhohn, "Common Humanity and Diverse Cultures," in The Meaning of the Human Sciences, ed. Daniel Lerner (New York, 1959)
92. Alexander H. Leighton, Human Relations in a Changing World: Observations on the Use of the Social Sciences (New York, 1949)
93. Samuel A. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, 4 vols. (Princeton, NJ, 1949-1950)
94. and the challenge in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., "The Statistical Soldier," Partisan Review 16 (August 1949): 852-56.
95. Historical accounts include Herman, The Romance of American Psychology, chap. 4
96. Peter Buck, "Adjusting to Military Life: The Social Sciences Go to War, in Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience, ed. Merritt Roe Smith (Cambridge, MA, 1985).
97. On the Office of War Information, Christopher Shannon, A World Made Safe for Difference: Cold War Intellectuals and the Politics of Identity (Lanham, MD, 2001).
98. More broadly, see Martin Bulmer, "The Growth of Applied Sociology after 1945: The Prewar Establishment of the Postwar Infrastructure," in Sociology and Its Publics: The Forms and Fates of Disciplinary Organization, ed. Terence C. Halliday and Morris Janowitz (Chicago, 1992).
99. On Ford Foundation spending, see Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge, 101.
100. On the fin de siècle transformations, see Morton Gabriel White, Social Thought in America: The Revolt against Formalism (New York, 1949)
101. Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, England, 1991)
102. and H. Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society: The Reorientation of European Social Thought, 1890-1930 (New York, 1958).
103. On Dewey's democratic vision, see especially Robert Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy (Ithaca, NY, 1989).
104. On the role of scientific thinking in midcentury America, see especially Robert C. Bannister, Sociology and Scientism: The American Quest for Objectivity, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1987)
105. Mark C. Smith, Social Science in the Crucible: The American Debate over Objectivity and Purpose, 1918-1941 (Durham, NC, 1994)
106. Robert Staughton Lynd, Knowledge for What? The Place of Social Science in American Culture (Princeton, NJ, 1939)
107. and John M. Jordan, Machine Age Ideology: Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911-1939 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1994).
108. On midcentury shifts, see especially David A. Hollinger, "Science as a Weapon in Kulturkampfe in the United States during and afterWorldWar II," in Science, Jews and Secular Culture, ed. David A. Hollinger (Princeton, NJ, 1998)
109. and Edward A. Purcell, Jr., The Crisis of Democratic Theory: Scientific Naturalism and the Problem of Value (Lexington, KY, 1973).
110. On Parsons's Newtonian aspirations, see Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 77-79.
111. On behavioral science and policy, see especially Clyde Kluckhohn, The Study of Culture, in The Policy Sciences: Recent Developments in Scope and Methods, ed. Daniel Lerner and Harold Lasswell (Stanford, CA, 1952)
112. U.S. Department of Defense, Research and Development Board, Committee on Human Resources, Integrated Plan of Research and Development in Human Resources (10 February 1949), in Office of the Secretary of Defense Records (U.S. National Archives), Record Group 330, Entry 341, Box 245, Folder 1
113. Margaret Mead, Soviet Attitudes toward Authority: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Problems of Soviet Character (New York, 1951)
114. Project RAND, "Conference of Social Scientists," RAND Report R-206 (June 1948)
115. Hans Speier Oral History (1988), National Air and Space Museum Archives
116. Buck, "Adjusting toMilitary Life"
117. and Cohen-Cole, "Thinking about Thinking."
118. Two retrospectives from Air Force Human Relations personnel are Raymond V. Bowers, "The Military Establishment," in The Uses of Sociology ed. Paul F. Lazarsfeld et al. (New York, 1967)
119. and George W. Croker, "Some Principles Regarding the Utilization of Social Science Research within the Military," in Stanford University Institute for Communication Research,Case Studies in Bringing the Behavioral Sciences into Use (Stanford, CA, 1961).
120. More broadly, see Martin J. Collins, ColdWar Laboratory: RAND, the Air Force, and the American State, 1945-1950 (Washington, DC, 2002). One social scientist called human relations "the biggest thing inWashington, aside from mink"-Saul Padover to Daniel Lerner, 11 January 1952, Records of the Project on Revolution and the Development of International Relations (Hoover Institution Archives), Box 15.
121. Robin, The Making of the ColdWar Enemy, chaps. 7, 8
122. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological and Social Themes (Cambridge, MA, 1956).
123. More broadly, see Arthur S. Barron, "Social Relations," in American Research on Russia, ed. H. H. Fisher (Bloomington, IN, 1958).
124. For a sharp criticism of Harvard's Refugee Interview Project, see Charles Thomas O'Connell, "Social Structure and Science: Soviet Studies at Harvard" (Ph.D. diss., UCLA, 1990).
125. There is, of course, a long-running debate about just how confrontational Eisenhower's Soviet policy was; see, for instance, Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman, Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy (Oxford, 1998).
126. On Solarium, see ibid., chap. 8,
127. and also William B. Pickett, ed., George F. Kennan and the Origins of Eisenhower's New Look: An Oral History of Project Solarium (Princeton, NJ, 2004).
128. On the Soviet Vulnerability project, see W.W. Rostow, The Dynamics of Soviet Power (Cambridge, MA, 1952) and the correspondence in President's Papers (MIT Archives), Collection AC004, Box 48, Folder 16
129. also White House Central File (Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library), Confidential File Subject Series, Box 62. On recent works suggesting Eisenhower's efforts at "rollback," see GregoryMitrovich, Undermining the Kremlin: America's Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947-1956 (Ithaca, NY, 2000)
130. Peter Grose, Operation Rollback: America's Secret War behind the Iron Curtain (Boston, 2000)
131. and Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence, KS, 2006).
132. President's Commission on Higher Education, Higher Education for American Democracy (Washington, DC, 1947), esp. 15-17.
133. Joseph Willits to Raymond Fosdick, 6 June 1942
134. Willits memorandum, 30 September 1942
135. and minutes of Officers' Conference (October 1942) - all in Rockefeller Foundation Records, Record Group 3.1, Series 900, Box 23, Folder 173.
136. Willits to David H. Stephens, quoting [Robert Red.eld], "Social Science Considerations in the Planning of Regional Specialization in Higher Education and Research" (10 March 1944), Rockefeller Foundation Records, Record Group 3.2, Series 900, Box 31, Folder 165.
137. David H. Stevens, "Proposal for a National Plan of Work on Foreign Languages, Institutions, and Customs" (7 June 1944), in Rockefeller Foundation Records, Record Group 1.1, Series 200R, Box 225, Folder 2688.
138. Stephen Marshall Arum, "Early Stages of Foreign Languages and Area Studies in the US: 1915-1941" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University Teachers College, 1975), chap. 3
139. Raymond B. Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York, 1952), chaps. 16-20.
140. On Rockefeller Foundation efforts to overcome isolationism, see Inderjeet Parmar, "'To Relate Knowledge and Action': The Impact of the Rockefeller Foundation on Foreign Policy Thinking during America's Rise to Globalism, 1939-1945," Minerva 40 (2002): 235-63.
141. William N. Fenton, Reports on Area Studies in American Universities (Washington, DC, 1945);
142. Schuyler C. Wallace, "The Naval School of Military Government and Administration," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 231 (January 1944): 29-33
143. Alonzo G. Grace, Educational Lessons fromWartime Training (Washington, DC, 1948)
144. Henry C. Herge et al., Wartime College Training Programs (Washington, DC, 1948)
145. Mortimer Graves, "Reflections on the Development of Area Studies in Academic Institutions on the West Coast of the United States" (27 September 1944), Rockefeller Foundation Records, Record Group 1.1, Series 200R, Box 225, Folder 2689
146. Mortimer Graves, "A Memorandum of Regional Studies" (20 April 1943), American Council of Learned Societies Records (Library of Congress Manuscript Room), Box D-17
147. Mortimer Graves, "The Future of Area Studies in American Universities and Colleges," in Rockefeller Foundation, Conference on Area and Language Programs in American Universities (New York, 1944), appendix 5, p. i.
148. Jennifer Leigh Gold, "Color and Conscience: Student Internationalism in the United States and the Challenges of Race and Nationality, 1886-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2002)
149. Howard Lee Nostrand and Francis J. Brown, eds., The Role of Colleges and Universities in International Understanding (Washington, DC, 1949)
150. Howard E. Wilson and Florence H. Wilson, American Higher Education and World Affairs (Washington, DC, 1963), 126.
151. Donald Fleming and Bernard Bailyn, eds., The Intellectual Migration: Europe and America, 1930-1960 (Cambridge, MA, 1968); Lewis Coser, Refugee Scholars in America: Their Impact and Their Experiences (New Haven, CT, 1984).
152. On Fulbright programs, see especially an issue of the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 491 (May 1987). On scholarly exchanges with the Soviet bloc, see Robert F. Byrnes, Soviet-American Academic Exchanges, 1958-1975 (Bloomington, IN, 1976);
153. John E. Bowman, "Educating American Undergraduates Abroad: The Development of Study Abroad Programs by American Colleges and Universities" (Council on International Educational Exchange, Occasional Papers no. 24, 1987).
154. For more critical views, see Berman, In.uence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations, chap. 3; Craufurd D. Goodwin and Michael Nacht, Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalize American Higher Education (Cambridge, England, 1991).
155. On Columbia's WWI-era courses, see Justus Buchler, "Reconstruction in the Liberal Arts," in A History of Columbia College in Morningside ed. Dwight C. Miner (New York, 1954);
156. and Gilbert Allardyce, "The Rise and Fall of the Western Civilization Course," American Historical Review 87 (June 1982): 706-7.
157. On an interesting WWII-era effort at inclusion, see Robert Shaffer, "Multicultural Education in New York City during World War II," New York History 77 (1996): 301-32.
158. Miles Kahler, "Inventing International Relations: IR Theory after 1945," in New Thinking in International Relations Theory, ed. Michael W. Doyle and G. John Ikenberry (Boulder, CO, 1997).
159. William L. Langer, "The United States inWorldWar II" (1 October 1945) in William L. Langer Papers (Harvard University Archives), Collection HUG(FP) 19.12, Box 2. Council on Foreign Relations to Rockefeller Foundation, 21 December 1945, Langer Papers, Collection HUG(FP) 19.12, Box 1.Walter Mallory to Langer, 23 October 1945;
160. and Norma Thompson to Mallory, 26 January 1946 both in Council of Foreign Relations Records (Mudd Library, Princeton University), Box 36, Folder 4.
161. President's Commission for Higher Education, Education for American Democracy; General Education in a Free Society: Report of the Harvard Committee (Cambridge, MA, 1945).
162. On the legacy of the president's commission, see Philo Hutcheson, "The 1947 President's Commission on Higher Education and the National Rhetoric on Higher Education Policy," History of Higher Education Annual 22 (2002): 91-109;
163. and Janet C. Kerr, "From Truman to Johnson: Ad Hoc Policy Formulation in Higher Education," Review of Higher Education 8 (Fall 1984): 15-54.
164. On post-WWII universalism, see especially David A. Hollinger, "HowWide the Circle of 'We'? American Intellectuals and the Problem of Ethnos since World War II," American Historical Review 98 (April 1993): 317-37.
165. Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, chap. 3; and Purcell, Crisis of Democratic Theory, chaps. 13, 14.
166. The reference is to the Museum of Modern Art exhibit "Family of Man" that toured the globe courtesy of the United States Information Agency; see Eric J. Sandeen, Picturing an Exhibition: The Family of Man and 1950s America (Albuquerque, 1995).
167. WaltW. Rostow and Max F. Millikan, A Proposal: Key to an Effective Foreign Policy (New York, 1958), 151 citing Walt Whitman, "One Thought Ever at the Fore" (1891): "One thought ever at the fore/That in the Devine Ship, the World, breasting Time and Space/
168. All people of the globe together sail, sail the same voyage/Are bound to the same destination." See also discussions of the Peace Corps in Fritz Fischer, Making Them Like Us: Peace Corps Volunteers in the 1960s (Washington, DC, 1998);
169. Elizabeth Cobbs Hoffman, All You Need Is Love: The Peace Corps and the Spirit of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA, 1998);
170. on links to modernization theory, see Latham, Modernization as Ideology, chap. 4.
171. Recent scholarship has made interesting connections between the domestic and international applications of universalism: Alyosha Goldstein, "Civic Poverty: An Empire of Liberty through Community Action" (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 2005);
172. Sheyda Jahanbani, "'A Different Kind of People': The Poor at Home and Abroad, 1935-1980" (Ph.D. diss., Brown University, in process).
173. See, for instance, Kenneth Cmiel, "The Emergence of Human Rights Politics in the United States," Journal of American History 86 (December 1999): 1231-50;
174. and Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for theWorld: America's Vision of Human Rights (Cambridge, MA, 2005).
175. A range of activities, from the Marshall Plan to the People-to-People Program, sought to integrate the Free World in economic, political, and cultural terms. Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945-1961 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2003), chap. 1;
176. Francis O. Wilcox, "Foreign Policy and Some Implications for Education," Department of State Bulletin 37 (29 July 1957): 179-85;
177. Melvyn P. Lef.er, "The American Conception of National Security and the Beginnings of the Cold War," American Historical Review 89 (April 1984): 346-81.
178. These paragraphs build on Nick Cullather, Τhe Foreign Policy of the Calorie," American Historical Review 112 (April 2007): 337-64.
179. Ibid., 343-44. The revolution of nutritional science, which de.ned foods in an increasingly complex matrix of nutrients protein, fats, vitamins, and so forth was only a further elaboration of this approach, carrying it to a logical, or perhaps illogical, extreme. As food writer Michael Pollan recently pointed out, we've stopped thinking of foods and started thinking of their components.
180. Michael Pollan, "Unhappy Meals," New York Times Magazine, 28 January 2007.
181. George H. Nash, The Life of Herbert Hoover: Master of Emergencies, 1917-1918 (New York, 1996), 74;
182. Cullather, "Foreign Policy of the Calorie," 348. On Germany's Eltzbacher Commission, see Graham Lusk, "Food Values," Science 45 (13 April 1917): 345-50;
183. and Paul Eltzbacher, Germany's Food: Can It Last?, ed. S. Russell Wells (London, 1915).
184. On blockades, see Avner Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation (Oxford, 1988), 25-26, 51-55;
185. and Lance E. Davis and Stanley L. Engerman, Naval Blockades in Peace and War: An Economic History since 1750 (Cambridge, England, 2006), chap. 5.
186. On the German home front, see Gerald D. Feldman, Army, Industry, and Labor in Germany, 1914-1918 (Princeton, NJ, 1966), 97-116;
187. and Belinda Joy Davis, Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life inWorldWar I Berlin (Chapel Hill, NC, 2000), chap. 6.
188. Frank Surface and Raymond L. Bland, American Food in theWorldWar and Reconstruction Period: Operations under the Direction of Herbert Hoover, 1914-1924 (Stanford, CA, 1931);
189. William Clinton Mullendore, History of the U.S. Food Administration, 1917-1919 (Stanford, CA, 1941).
190. Cullather, "Foreign Policy of the Calorie," 362-63.
191. Amy L. S. Staples, The Birth of Development: How the World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, and World Health Organization Changed the World, 1945-1965 (Kent, OH, 2006), chaps. 5-7.
192. John H. Perkins, Geopolitics and the Green Revolution: Wheat, Genes, and the Cold War (Oxford, 1988);
193. Nick Cullather, "A Parable of Seeds: The United States and the Green Revolution in Asia" (unpublished book manuscript, in author's possession),
194. and "Miracles of Modernization: The Green Revolution and the Apotheosis of Technology," Diplomatic History 28 (April 2004): 227-54;
195. Dana G. Dalrymple, "The Adoption of High-Yielding Varieties in Developing Countries," Agricultural History 53 (1979): 704-26.
196. Matthew Connelly, "To Inherit the Earth: Imagining World Population, from the Yellow Peril to the Population Bomb," Journal of Global History 1 (December 2006): 299-319;
197. Dennis Hodgson, "The Ideological Origins of the Population Association of America," Population and Development Review 17 (March 1991): 1-34;
198. James Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue: The Birth Control Movement and American Society since 1830 (New York, 1978), chap. 14. Greenhalgh, "Social Construction of Population Science," 35-36.
199. On Princeton's early work, see Frank W. Notestein, "Demography in the United States: A Partial Account of the Development of the Field," Population and Development Review 8 (December 1982): 651-87.
200. For an overview, see Matthew Connelly, "Population Control Is History: New Perspectives on the International Campaign to Limit Population Growth," Comparative Studies in Society and History 45 ( January 2003): 122-47.
201. Simon Szreter, "The Idea of Demographic Transition and Fertility Change: A Critical Intellectual History," Population Development Review 19 (December 1993): 663-67, 674.
202. Matthew Connelly, "Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period," Population and Development Review 32 (December 2006): 632, 646-48, 656-57.
203. On the question of sovereignty, see Matthew Connelly, "Seeing beyond the State: The Population Control Movement and the Problem of Sovereignty," Past and Present 193 (November 2006): 197-233.
204. Amir Wiener, "Nature, Nurture and Memory in a Socialist Utopia: Delineating the Socio-Ethnic Body in the Age of Socialism," American Historical Review 104 (October 1999): 1114-55;
205. Paul Weindling, "Fascism and Population in European Perspective," Population and Development Review 14 (1988): 102-21;
206. David L. Hoffmann, "European Modernity and Soviet Socialism," in Russian Modernity: Politics, Knowledge, Practices, ed. David L. Hoffmann and Yanni Kotsonis (New York, 2000);
207. Maria Sophia Quine, Population Politics in Twentieth-Century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal Democracies (London, 1996).
208. The year 1947 was a big one for national accounts. The first international standards were promulgated that year in Measure of National Income and the Construction of Social Accounts, produced by the League of Nations Committee of Statistical Experts. The United Nations Statistical Of.ce took over the task soon thereafter, producing its first System of National Accounts and Supporting Tables in 1953 see John W. Kendrick, "National Income and Product Accounts," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, ed. David L. Sills (New York, 1968), 11: 19-34.
209. The Oxford English Dictionary lists the first use of "gross national product" also in 1947 in J. Frederic Dewhurst, America's Needs and Resources (New York, 1947). And Simon Kuznets produced National Income and Product Statistics of the United States, 1929-1946 in a supplement to Survey of Current Business in July 1947.
210. See a sixtieth birthday celebration, speci.c without being overly technical, in that journal: Rosemary D. Marcuss and Richard E. Kane, "U.S. National Income and Product Statistics: Born of the Great Depression andWorld War II," Survey of Current Business 87 (February 2007): 32-46.
211. A technical account of measurement problems is in Oskar Morgenstern, On the Accuracy of Economic Observations (Princeton, NJ, 1963), chap. 14 (originally produced for the Office of Naval Research).
212. On weaknesses of GNP for developing countries, see especially a pair of articles by economist Dudley Seers, "What Are We Trying to Measure?," Journal of Development Economics 8 (April 1972): 21-36,
213. and "The Political Economy of National Accounting," in Employment, Income Distribution, and Development Strategy: Problems in Developing Countries (Essays in Honour of H. W. Singer), ed. Alec Cairncross and Mohinder Puri (London, 1976).
214. Edgar Z. Palmer, The Meaning and Measurement of the National Income and of Other Social Accounting Aggregates (Lincoln, NE, 1966).
215. See also, for broader outlines, Timothy Mitchell, "Economists and the Economy in the Twentieth Century," in The Politics of Method in the Human Sciences: Positivism and Its Epistemological Others, ed. George Steinmetz (Durham, NC, 2005);
216. and Mitchell, "Origins and Limits of the Modern Idea of the Economy" (University of Michigan International Institute, Advanced Study CenterWorking Paper Series, no. 12, 1995).
217. A. C. Pigou used money as a measuring rod quoted in John W. Kendrick, "The Historical Development of National-Income Accounts," History of Political Economy 2 (Fall 1970): 305.
218. On the relationship between economics and statistics, see John Kenneth Galbraith, Economics in Perspective: A Critical History (Boston, 1987), 245;
219. and Don Patinkin, "Keynes and Econometrics: On the Interaction between the Macroeconomic Revolutions of the Interwar Period," Econometrica 44 (November 1976): 1091-1123.
220. Simon Kuznets's classic article on method highlighted the problems "National Income," Encyclopedia of Social Science (New York, 1936), 11: 205-24.
221. For background, see Carol S. Carson, "The History of the United States National Income and Product Accounts: The Development of an Analytical Tool," Review of Income and Wealth 21 (June 1975): 155-60.
222. Galbraith, Economics in Perspective, 246;
223. W.W. Rostow, Theorists of Economic Growth from David Hume to the Present, with a Perspective on the Next Century (Oxford 1990), 210.
224. Paul Samuelson, "Unemployment Ahead," New Republic 111 (11 September 1944): 298.
225. John Kenneth Galbraith called Kuznets a "pillar in Economics in Perspective", 247; Kuznets inspired awe in Mark Perlman "Political Purpose and the National Accounts," in The Politics of Numbers, ed. William Alonso and Paul Starr (New York, 1987), 142-45.
226. There is an excruciatingly detailed account of the battle over the feasibility of Kuznets's plans in Inter- University Case Program [John Brigante], The Feasibility Dispute: Determination of War Production Objectives for 1942 and 1943 (Washington, DC, 1950).
227. On the British comparison, see J. M. Keynes, How to Pay for the War (London, 1940); Patinkin, "Keynes and Econometrics."
228. On the diplomatic history of Lend-Lease, see George C. Herring, Jr., American Aid to Russia, 1941-1946: Strategy, Diplomacy, and the Origins of the Cold War (New York, 1973),
229. and John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947 (New York, 1971), chap. 6.
230. On the Office of Strategic Services, see Barry Katz, Foreign Intelligence: Research and Intelligence in the Of.ce of Strategic Services (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 112-22, 142-47.
231. Randall BennettWoods, A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941-1946 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1990);
232. Staples, Birth of Development, chaps. 2-4;
233. Thomas G. Paterson, Soviet-American Confrontation: Postwar Reconstruction and the Origins of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1973), chap. 7.
234. G. John Ikenberry, "The Political Origins of BrettonWoods," in A Retrospective on the BrettonWoods System: Lessons for International Monetary Reform, ed. Michael D. Bordo and Barry Eichengreen (Chicago, 1993).
235. Paul Studenski, Income of Nations (New York, 1961), 1: 142, 155.
236. Kendrick, "National Income and Product Accounts," 22.
237. Kuznets headed the Committee on Economic Growth under the sponsorship of the Social Science Research Council after the National Bureau for Economic Research declined to get involved in international work see Vibha Kapuria-Foreman and Mark Perlman, "An Economic Historian's Economist: Remembering Simon Kuznets," Economic Journal 105 (November 1995): 1524-47;
238. Robert W. Fogel, "Simon S. Kuznets" (NBER Working Paper Series, no. 7787, 2000);
239. and H. W. Arndt, The Rise and Fall of Economic Growth: A Study in Contemporary Thought (Chicago, 1978), chap. 4.
240. Kuznets published a series of articles in Economic Development and Cultural Change in the 1960s, collected as Simon Kuznets, Modern Economic Growth: Rate, Structure and Spread (New Haven, CT, 1966),
241. and The Economic Growth of Nations: Total Output and Production Structure (Cambridge, MA, 1971).
242. Kuznets's British counterpart, Colin Clark, soon became a critic of reigning development strategies;
243. see Colin Clark, The Conditions of Economic Progress (London, 1940), Growthmanship: A Study in the Mythology of Investment (London, 1962), and "Development Economics: The Early Years," in Pioneers in Development, ed. Gerald M. Meier and Dudley Seers (Oxford, 1984).
244. Robert M. Collins, More: The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America (Oxford, 2000);
245. Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York, 1995).
246. The field of the history of development has grown quickly; for an early assessment, see Nick Cullather, "Development? It's History," Diplomatic History 24 (Fall 2000): 641-53.
247. Some collections indicating the evolution of the field are Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1997);
248. and David C. Engerman, Nils Gilman, Mark H. Haefele, and Michael Latham, eds., Staging Growth: Modernization, Development, and the Cold War (Amherst, MA, 2003).
249. Some of the studies by nonhistorians have thoroughly explored the discourse of development, occasionally at the expense of context: Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (Princeton, NJ, 1995);
250. Wolfgang Sachs, ed., The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power (London, 1992);
251. and Jonathan Crush, ed., Power of Development (New York, 1995).
252. For some especially insightful social scientific work on development, see especially the work of James Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: "Development," Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Cambridge, England, 1990),
253. and Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Urban Life in the Zambian Copper Belt (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1999);
254. and Timothy Mitchell, The Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2002).
255. Sugata Bose, "Instruments and Idioms of Colonial and National Development: India's Historical Experience in Comparative Perspective," in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences;
256. Partha Chatterjee, "Development Planning and the Indian State", in The State, Development Planning, and Liberalisation in India, ed. Terence J. Byres (Delhi, 1997);
257. Sukhamoy Chakravarty, Development Planning: The Indian Experience (Oxford, 1987).
258. For more on the economists, see Terence J. Byres, The Indian Economy: Major Debates since Independence (Delhi, 1998), chaps. 1-3;
259. George Rosen, Western Economists and Eastern Societies: Agents of Change in South Asia, 1950-1970 (Baltimore, 1985), chap. 5;
260. and Ashok Rudra, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis: A Biography (Delhi, 1996), chap. 14.
261. For a thorough and convincing analysis of modern Indian economic history, see Frances Frankel, India's Political Economy, 1947-1977 (Princeton, NJ, 1978), chaps. 4-8.
262. There has been recent and very good scholarly literature on U.S. development in India, starting with Dennis Merrill, Bread and the Ballot: The United States and India's Economic Development, 1947-1963 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1990);
263. Nicole Sackley, "Passage to Modernity: American Social Scientists, India, and the Pursuit of Development, 1945-1961" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 2004);
264. and Cullather, "Parable of Seeds," chap. 5.
265. For citations on Indian development aims and institutions, see David C. Engerman, "East MeetsWest: The Center for International Studies and Indian Economic Development," in Engerman, Gilman, Haefele, and Latham, eds., Staging Growth.
266. Scott Patrick O'Bryan, "Growth Solutions: Economic Knowledge and Problems of Capitalism in Post-War Japan, 1945-1960" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 2000), quoted p. 162;
267. Eleanor M. Hadley, "The Diffusion of Keynesian Ideas in Japan," in The Political Power of Economic Ideas: Keynesianism across Nations, ed. Peter A. Hall (Princeton, NJ, 1989).
268. On conservative political power, see Sayuri Shimizu, Creating People of Plenty: The United States and Japan's Economic Alternatives (Kent, OH, 2001);
269. Walter LaFeber, The Clash: U.S.-Japanese Relations throughout History (New York, 1999), chaps. 10, 11;
270. and JohnW. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in theWake ofWorldWar II (New York, 1999), chap. 17.
271. On intellectual changes, see especially Andrew E. Barshay, The Social Sciences in Modern Japan: The Marxist and Modernist Traditions (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2004).
272. Earl Latham, "One Statistical World," Journal of the American Statistical Association 41 (September 1946): 275-92;
273. Arthur Smithies, "National Income as a Determinant of International Policy," Studies in Income and Wealth 8 (1946): 47-72.
274. For broader intellectual and institutional histories, see Richard Jolly, Louis Emmerik, Dharam Ghai, and Frédéric Lapeyre, UN Contributions to Development Thinking and Practice (Bloomington, IN, 2004), pt. II;
275. and MichaelWard, Quantifying the World: UN Ideas and Statistics (Bloomington, IN, 2004).
276. For the effects of "growthmanship" in Mexico, see Stephen R. Niblo, War, Development, and Diplomacy: The United States and Mexico, 1938-1950i] (Wilmington, DE, 1995), 15-26.
277. For contemporaneous accounts of economic Sovietology, see Gregory Grossman, "Economics," in Fisher, ed., American Research on Russia
278. Alexander Gerschenkron, "Studies of the Soviet Economy in the USA," in The State of Soviet Studies, ed. Walter Z. Laqueur and Leopold Labedz (Cambridge, MA, 1965).
279. A useful retrospective is James R. Millar, "Rethinking Soviet Economic Studies," in Beyond Soviet Studies, ed. Daniel Orlovsky (Baltimore, 1995).
280. On public debates in the 1950s, see Allan Welsh Dulles, "The Challenge of Soviet Industrial Growth," in The Challenge of Soviet Industrial Growth (Princeton, NJ, 1957),
281. and further citations in David C. Engerman, "The Romance of EconomicDevelopment and New Histories of the Cold War," Diplomatic History 28 (January 2004): 40-43.
282. On public debates at the end of the Cold War, see James R. Millar et al., "An Evaluation of the CIA's Analysis of Soviet Economic Performance, 1970-1990," Comparative Economic Studies 35 (Summer 1993): 33-58.
283. On the politics of American Soviet estimates, see John Prados, The Soviet Estimate: U.S. Intelligence Analysis and Russian Military Strength (New York, 1982);
284. Noel E. Firth and James H. Noren, Soviet Defense Spending: A History of CIA Estimates, 1950-1990 (College Station, TX, 1998);
285. Anne H. Cahn, Killing Détente: The Right Attacks the CIA (University Park, PA, 1998); also Richard E. Pipes, Vixi: Memoirs of a Non-Belonger (New Haven, CT, 2003), chap. 3.
286. In the 1980s, see Henry S. Rowen and CharlesWolf, Jr., eds., The Impoverished Superpower: Perestroika and the Soviet Military Burden (San Francisco, 1990);
287. and Ken Silverstein, PrivateWarriors (New York, 2000), 9-22.
288. Vladimir G. Treml, Censorship, Access, and In.uence: Western Sovietology in the Soviet Union (Berkeley, 1999);
289. Andrei Markevich, "Soviet Planning Archives: The Files that Bergson Could Not See," Comparative Economic Systems 47 (June 2005): 364-86.