Development? It's history

Diplomatic History

Volumn 24, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 641-653

  Cullather, Nick ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0041028827     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/0145-2096.00242     Document Type: Article

References (88)

1. John Kenneth Galbraith, The Nature of Mass Poverty (Cambridge, MA, 1979), 29.
2. A useful introduction to this literature is Gerald M. Meier and Dudley Seers, eds., Pioneers in Development (New York, 1984).
3. NSC 5813/1, "Statement of U.S. Policy Toward the Philippines," 4 June 1958, U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960 (Washington, 1992), 15: 868. The State Department published the first FRUS volume on development last year. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. 9, International Development and Economic Defense Policy; Commodities (Washington, 1997).
4. NSC 5813/1, "Statement of U.S. Policy Toward the Philippines," 4 June 1958, U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960 (Washington, 1992), 15: 868. The State Department published the first FRUS volume on development last year. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. 9, International Development and Economic Defense Policy; Commodities (Washington, 1997).
5. Bruce Cumings, "Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies During and After the Cold War," in Universities and Empire, ed. Christopher Simpson (New York, 1998), 159-88.
6. Ole R. Holsti, "International Relations Models," in Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, ed. Michael J. Hogan and Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1992), 57-88. See also David Painter, "Explaining U.S. Relations with the Third World," Diplomatic History 19 (Summer 1995): 525-48.
7. Ole R. Holsti, "International Relations Models," in Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, ed. Michael J. Hogan and Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1992), 57-88. See also David Painter, "Explaining U.S. Relations with the Third World," Diplomatic History 19 (Summer 1995): 525-48.
8. Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language (New York, 1828), vol. 1.
9. J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, The Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, 1989), 4: 564. Raymond Williams notes that the meaning of "development" expanded in the mid-nineteenth century through associations with the theory of evolution and social Darwinism. The post-1945 coinage of underdevelopment connected the term with an idea that economies and societies pass through predictable stages, a meaning that paralleled the contemporary usage in psychology. Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (New York, 1985), 102-4.
10. J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, The Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, 1989), 4: 564. Raymond Williams notes that the meaning of "development" expanded in the mid-nineteenth century through associations with the theory of evolution and social Darwinism. The post-1945 coinage of underdevelopment connected the term with an idea that economies and societies pass through predictable stages, a meaning that paralleled the contemporary usage in psychology. Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (New York, 1985), 102-4.
11. H. W Arndt attributes the first use of "economic development" to Karl Marx (1887) who permanently stamped it with implications of historical inevitability. Arndt, "Economic Development: A Semantic History," Economic Development and Cultural Change 29, no. 3 (1981): 457-66.
12. The latest development economics text notes that within the field, disagreement ranges between those who believe in "unconditional convergence" and those who prefer the conditional variety. The difference concerns the relative speed with which nations will approach the final end state. Debraj Ray, Development Economics (Princeton, 1998), 25-28. Only Immanuel Wallerstein has been bold enough to set a date for convergence: 2050 (mental note: make hotel reservations).
13. Immanuel Wallerstein, "The World System After the Cold War," Journal of Peace Research 30, no. 1 (1993): 1-16.
14. Proponents of these approaches acknowledge their inheritance from modernization theory. Thomas J. McCormick describes world systems as "an interesting hybrid of two competing developmental theories - dependency and modernization." Louis A. Pérez, Jr. writes that "In its most usable form, dependency theory establishes the relationship between development and underdevelopment as the context in which to examine relations between the United States and Latin America." McCormick, "World Systems," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History. 90: Pérez, "Dependency," in ibid., 101.
15. Proponents of these approaches acknowledge their inheritance from modernization theory. Thomas J. McCormick describes world systems as "an interesting hybrid of two competing developmental theories - dependency and modernization." Louis A. Pérez, Jr. writes that "In its most usable form, dependency theory establishes the relationship between development and underdevelopment as the context in which to examine relations between the United States and Latin America." McCormick, "World Systems," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History. 90: Pérez, "Dependency," in ibid., 101.
16. I use these two terms interchangeably, as does most of the literature. Modernization originally referred to a process of renovation in architecture and fashion, but by the twentieth century referred to economic and social improvement. Its meaning fused with development after 1945. Williams, Keywords, 208-9.
17. Ray, Development Economics, 8.
18. Nicholas C. Pano, general editor, letter to the author, 18 January 1997.
19. Dudley Seers, "The Birth, Life and Death of Development Economics," Development and Change 10, no. 4 (1979): 709. According to Seers, economists applied a statistical "framework which had been developed in a different context, and loaded it with largely meaningless numbers" in response to "professional convenience."
20. Since 1990, the UN Development Program has produced a Human Development Index using a conflation similar to Gerald Ford's Misery Index (inflation plus unemployment, remember?). The HDI factors together figures for life expectancy, literacy, and per capita income to produce a decimal figure between zero and one that represents the "fraction of ultimate development." Ray, Development Economics, 28.
21. This is particularly true of the literature's seminal texts, such as Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society (Glencoe, IL, 1958); Clifford Geertz, Agricultural Involution: The Process of Ecological Change in Indonesia (Berkeley, 1963) ; and W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (New York, 1960).
22. This is particularly true of the literature's seminal texts, such as Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society (Glencoe, IL, 1958); Clifford Geertz, Agricultural Involution: The Process of Ecological Change in Indonesia (Berkeley, 1963) ; and W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (New York, 1960).
23. This is particularly true of the literature's seminal texts, such as Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society (Glencoe, IL, 1958); Clifford Geertz, Agricultural Involution: The Process of Ecological Change in Indonesia (Berkeley, 1963) ; and W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (New York, 1960).
24. James T. Fisher, Dr. America: The Lives of Thomas A. Dooley, 1927-1961 (Amherst, 1997), 192. Such formulations equate the past with poverty. Time is money, or at least the things money buys.
25. Compare Curtis LeMay's familiar aphorism about "bombing them back to the stone age," or Fareed Zakaria's recent observation that "for developing countries, hitching their wagons to the global economy has proved to be the only way out of thousands of years of poverty." Zakaria, "Our Hollow Hegemony," The New York Times Magazine, 1 November 1998.
26. Eric Hobsbawm and T. O. Ranger, The Invention of Tradition (New York, 1983).
27. Timothy Mitchell, "America's Egypt: Discourse of the Development Industry," Middle East Report 21 (March/April 1991): 29.
28. Paul Blustein, "The IMF's Faceless Commandos," Washington Post National Weekly, 6 April 1998; Robert Kuttner has remarked on how political agendas lurk just beneath development's technical vocabulary: Were a Latin American government to propose a development program involving "public works spending, land reform, social welfare, domestic industrial development, redistribute taxation, and controls on capital exports - just what Western Europe did in the 1950s - [it] would be judged technically incompetent by the IMF technicians and denied funds." Robert Kuttner, The End of Laissez-Faire: National Purpose and the Global Economy after the Cold War (New York, 1991), 225.
29. Paul Blustein, "The IMF's Faceless Commandos," Washington Post National Weekly, 6 April 1998; Robert Kuttner has remarked on how political agendas lurk just beneath development's technical vocabulary: Were a Latin American government to propose a development program involving "public works spending, land reform, social welfare, domestic industrial development, redistribute taxation, and controls on capital exports - just what Western Europe did in the 1950s - [it] would be judged technically incompetent by the IMF technicians and denied funds." Robert Kuttner, The End of Laissez-Faire: National Purpose and the Global Economy after the Cold War (New York, 1991), 225.
30. C. Douglas Lummis, Radical Democracy (Ithaca, 1996), 46.
31. On this point see James Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: Development, Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in the Third World (New York, 1990), 254-56.
32. Or in Daniel Lerner's words "what the West is . . . the Middle East Seeks to become." Lerner, Passing of Traditional Society, 47.
33. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York, 1997); David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some are so Rich and Some so Poor (New York, 1998).
34. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York, 1997); David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some are so Rich and Some so Poor (New York, 1998).
35. Diamond got his thesis in 1972 from a Papuan who asked him "Why is it that you white people developed so much cargo and brought it to New Guinea, but we black people had little cargo of our own?" Diamond, Guns, Germs, 14.
36. J. Bradford DeLong, a U.C. Berkeley economist, explains that "a history oriented toward understanding the wealth and poverty of nations today must be Eurocentric." DeLong, "How the Rich Got Richer," Washington Post Weekly, 30 March 1998.
37. Landes, Wealth and Poverty, xxi. 28. Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago, 1995), 27, 49.
38. Joyce Appleby, Lynn Hunt, and Margaret Jacob, Telling the Truth about History (New York, 1994), 77.
39. In 1932, J. B. Bury noted that "within the last forty years nearly every civilized country has produced a large literature on social science, in which indefinite Progress is generally assumed as an axiom." Bury, The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into Its Origin and Growth (New York, 1932), 348.
40. The taxonomy of ultra- and post-modernism is drawn from Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, "introduction," in International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, ed. Cooper and Packard (Berkeley, 1997), 2-3. Francis Fukuyama, "The End of History," The National Interest (Summer 1989): 3-18. For the most recent restatement of the market triumphalist creed see Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York, 1999).
41. The taxonomy of ultra- and post-modernism is drawn from Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, "introduction," in International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, ed. Cooper and Packard (Berkeley, 1997), 2-3. Francis Fukuyama, "The End of History," The National Interest (Summer 1989): 3-18. For the most recent restatement of the market triumphalist creed see Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York, 1999).
42. The taxonomy of ultra- and post-modernism is drawn from Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, "introduction," in International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, ed. Cooper and Packard (Berkeley, 1997), 2-3. Francis Fukuyama, "The End of History," The National Interest (Summer 1989): 3-18. For the most recent restatement of the market triumphalist creed see Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York, 1999).
43. Edward Said, "Orientalism," The Georgia Review 31 (Spring 1977): 162-206; V. Y. Mudimbe, The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge (Bloomington, 1988).
44. Edward Said, "Orientalism," The Georgia Review 31 (Spring 1977): 162-206; V. Y. Mudimbe, The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge (Bloomington, 1988).
45. Ann Gibbons, "Cultural Divide at Stanford," Science, 20 June 1997; Christopher Shea, "Tribal Skirmishes in Anthropology," Chronicle of Higher Education, 11 September 1998. Stanford's anthropology department broke apart over the issue of tenure for Akhil Gupta, a scholar who applied historical methods to the study of development in India.
46. Ann Gibbons, "Cultural Divide at Stanford," Science, 20 June 1997; Christopher Shea, "Tribal Skirmishes in Anthropology," Chronicle of Higher Education, 11 September 1998. Stanford's anthropology department broke apart over the issue of tenure for Akhil Gupta, a scholar who applied historical methods to the study of development in India.
47. Mudimbe, Invention of Africa, 189.
48. Arturo Escobar, "Power and Visibility: Development and the Invention and Management of the Third World," Cultural Anthropology 3 (November 1988): 428-43.
49. Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom, "Are You Now or Have You Ever Been . . . Postmodern," Chronicle of Higher Education, 11 September 1998.
50. For an anthology of postmodern takes on development see Wolfgang Sachs, ed., The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power (London, 1992). See also Lummis, Radical Democracy; Ashis Nandy, ed., Science, Hegemony, and Violence: A Requiem for Modernity (Delhi, 1988); Marc DuBois, "The Governance of the Third World: A Foucaldian Perspective on Power Relations in Development," Alternatives 16, no. 1 (1991): 1-30; and Frédérique Apffel Marglin and Stephen A. Marglin, Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture, and Resistance (Oxford, 1990). There is a shade of Gandhian anti-modernism in most of these works, an affinity for rurality, "local knowledge," and eco-primitivism.
51. For an anthology of postmodern takes on development see Wolfgang Sachs, ed., The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power (London, 1992). See also Lummis, Radical Democracy; Ashis Nandy, ed., Science, Hegemony, and Violence: A Requiem for Modernity (Delhi, 1988); Marc DuBois, "The Governance of the Third World: A Foucaldian Perspective on Power Relations in Development," Alternatives 16, no. 1 (1991): 1-30; and Frédérique Apffel Marglin and Stephen A. Marglin, Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture, and Resistance (Oxford, 1990). There is a shade of Gandhian anti-modernism in most of these works, an affinity for rurality, "local knowledge," and eco-primitivism.
52. For an anthology of postmodern takes on development see Wolfgang Sachs, ed., The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power (London, 1992). See also Lummis, Radical Democracy; Ashis Nandy, ed., Science, Hegemony, and Violence: A Requiem for Modernity (Delhi, 1988); Marc DuBois, "The Governance of the Third World: A Foucaldian Perspective on Power Relations in Development," Alternatives 16, no. 1 (1991): 1-30; and Frédérique Apffel Marglin and Stephen A. Marglin, Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture, and Resistance (Oxford, 1990). There is a shade of Gandhian anti-modernism in most of these works, an affinity for rurality, "local knowledge," and eco-primitivism.
53. For an anthology of postmodern takes on development see Wolfgang Sachs, ed., The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power (London, 1992). See also Lummis, Radical Democracy; Ashis Nandy, ed., Science, Hegemony, and Violence: A Requiem for Modernity (Delhi, 1988); Marc DuBois, "The Governance of the Third World: A Foucaldian Perspective on Power Relations in Development," Alternatives 16, no. 1 (1991): 1-30; and Frédérique Apffel Marglin and Stephen A. Marglin, Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture, and Resistance (Oxford, 1990). There is a shade of Gandhian anti-modernism in most of these works, an affinity for rurality, "local knowledge," and eco-primitivism.
54. Wolfgang Sachs, "The Archaeology of the Development Idea," INTERculture 23 (Fall 1990): 2-7.
55. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991); James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998); Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York, 1997); Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York, 1998); Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences. Another noteworthy contribution is Michael P. Cowen and Robert W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (New York, 1996).
56. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991); James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998); Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York, 1997); Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York, 1998); Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences. Another noteworthy contribution is Michael P. Cowen and Robert W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (New York, 1996).
57. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991); James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998); Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York, 1997); Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York, 1998); Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences. Another noteworthy contribution is Michael P. Cowen and Robert W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (New York, 1996).
58. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991); James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998); Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York, 1997); Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York, 1998); Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences. Another noteworthy contribution is Michael P. Cowen and Robert W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (New York, 1996).
59. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991); James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998); Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York, 1997); Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York, 1998); Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences. Another noteworthy contribution is Michael P. Cowen and Robert W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (New York, 1996).
60. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991); James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998); Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York, 1997); Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York, 1998); Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences. Another noteworthy contribution is Michael P. Cowen and Robert W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (New York, 1996).
61. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991); James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998); Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York, 1997); Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York, 1998); Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences. Another noteworthy contribution is Michael P. Cowen and Robert W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (New York, 1996).
62. On development as ideology see Michael Latham, "Ideology, Social Science, and Destiny: Modernization and the Kennedy Era Alliance for Progress," Diplomatic History 22 (Spring 1998): 199-229.
63. Randall M. Packard, "Malaria Dreams: Postwar Visions of Health and Development in the Third World," Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997): 279-96; Randall M. Packard and Paulo Gadhela, "A Land filled with Mosquitoes:" Fred L. Soper, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Anopheles Gambiae Invasion of Brazil," Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997): 215-38.
64. Randall M. Packard, "Malaria Dreams: Postwar Visions of Health and Development in the Third World," Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997): 279-96; Randall M. Packard and Paulo Gadhela, "A Land filled with Mosquitoes:" Fred L. Soper, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Anopheles Gambiae Invasion of Brazil," Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997): 215-38.
65. Randall M. Packard, "Malaria Dreams: Postwar Visions of Health and Development in the Third World," Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997): 279-96; Randall M. Packard and Paulo Gadhela, "A Land filled with Mosquitoes:" Fred L. Soper, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Anopheles Gambiae Invasion of Brazil," Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997): 215-38.
66. Martha Finnemore, "Redefining Development at the World Bank," in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences, 203-27.
67. Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), 159-62. Sean P Duffy describes a development discourse imposed by the United States on the rest of the world after 1945. Duffy, "The Construction of Inequality: U.S. Foreign Policy, Development Discourse, and the Postwar Expansion of the International System" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1997).
68. Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), 159-62. Sean P Duffy describes a development discourse imposed by the United States on the rest of the world after 1945. Duffy, "The Construction of Inequality: U.S. Foreign Policy, Development Discourse, and the Postwar Expansion of the International System" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1997).
69. Cooper and Packard, "introduction," in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences, 18.
70. Stacey Leigh Pigg describes how the categories of development are disrupted by its "traditional" subjects, who anticipate and manipulate the process before it begins. Pigg, "'Found in Most Traditional Societies': Traditional Medical Practitioners Between Culture and Development," in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences, 259-90.
71. Sun Yat-sen, The International Development of China (New York, 1922) appeared seven years before Britain's first Colonial Development Act. For decades before independence, Indian nationalists sought to seize the development process and fashion a uniquely Indian modernity. See Cyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (Princeton, 1999); Sugata Bose, "Instruments and Idioms of Colonial and National Development: India's Historical Experience in Comparative Perspective," in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences, 45-63; and Duara, Rescuing History, 86.
72. Sun Yat-sen, The International Development of China (New York, 1922) appeared seven years before Britain's first Colonial Development Act. For decades before independence, Indian nationalists sought to seize the development process and fashion a uniquely Indian modernity. See Cyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (Princeton, 1999); Sugata Bose, "Instruments and Idioms of Colonial and National Development: India's Historical Experience in Comparative Perspective," in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences, 45-63; and Duara, Rescuing History, 86.
73. Sun Yat-sen, The International Development of China (New York, 1922) appeared seven years before Britain's first Colonial Development Act. For decades before independence, Indian nationalists sought to seize the development process and fashion a uniquely Indian modernity. See Cyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (Princeton, 1999); Sugata Bose, "Instruments and Idioms of Colonial and National Development: India's Historical Experience in Comparative Perspective," in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences, 45-63; and Duara, Rescuing History, 86.
74. Sun Yat-sen, The International Development of China (New York, 1922) appeared seven years before Britain's first Colonial Development Act. For decades before independence, Indian nationalists sought to seize the development process and fashion a uniquely Indian modernity. See Cyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (Princeton, 1999); Sugata Bose, "Instruments and Idioms of Colonial and National Development: India's Historical Experience in Comparative Perspective," in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences, 45-63; and Duara, Rescuing History, 86.
75. Appleby et al., Telling the Truth, 196.
76. Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men.
77. Harry S. Truman, inaugural address, 20 January 1949, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1940 (Washington, 1964), 114.
78. Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (Princeton, 1995), 36.
79. Galbraith, Nature of Mass Poverty, vi.
80. This concept has been called "visual modernism." See Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt, 63-94.
81. Gilbert Rist, The History of Development From Western Origins to Global Faith (London, 1997), 79.
82. Scott, Seeing Like a State.
83. Quoted in Nils Gilman, "Paving the World With Good Intentions: The Genesis of Modernization Theory, 1945-1965" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2000).
84. Quoted in Alonzo Hanby, Liberalism and its Challengers: FDR to Reagan (New York, 1985), 72-73.
85. Even Landes, a true believer, admits that "optimistic number crunchers point to overall mini-convergence, but . . . only the special success of East Asia yields this optical illusion." Landes, Wealth and Poverty, 518.
86. Examples of this variation include crony capitalism, state capitalism, Japanese/Korean/Taiwanese guided capitalism, European-style social-market economies, and Anglo-Saxon individualistic market economies, as well as "socialism with Chinese characteristics" and the unnamed types found in Russia and the former Soviet states. See Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, 1990); Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in Newly Industrializing Countries (Ithaca, 1990) ; and Jorge Castañeda, Utopia Unarmed (New York, 1994), 428-46.
87. Examples of this variation include crony capitalism, state capitalism, Japanese/Korean/Taiwanese guided capitalism, European-style social-market economies, and Anglo-Saxon individualistic market economies, as well as "socialism with Chinese characteristics" and the unnamed types found in Russia and the former Soviet states. See Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, 1990); Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in Newly Industrializing Countries (Ithaca, 1990) ; and Jorge Castañeda, Utopia Unarmed (New York, 1994), 428-46.
88. Examples of this variation include crony capitalism, state capitalism, Japanese/Korean/Taiwanese guided capitalism, European-style social-market economies, and Anglo-Saxon individualistic market economies, as well as "socialism with Chinese characteristics" and the unnamed types found in Russia and the former Soviet states. See Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, 1990); Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in Newly Industrializing Countries (Ithaca, 1990) ; and Jorge Castañeda, Utopia Unarmed (New York, 1994), 428-46.