Project Camelot and the 1960s epistemological revolution: Rethinking the politics - patronage - social science nexus

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 171-206

  Solovey, Mark ^a  

^a NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Counter insurgency; Ideology; Objectivity; SORO; Value neutrality

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035646050     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0306312701031002003     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. Ralph L. Beals, Politics of Social Research: An Inquiry Into the Ethics and Responsibilities of Social Scientists (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company, 1969), 4.
2. Good sources from the 1960s on Project Camelot include: US Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, Behavioral Sciences and the National Security, Report No. 4, together with Part 9 of Winning the Cold War: The US Ideological Offensive, hearings [hereafter, BSNS], 89th Congress, 1st session (1965); US Congress, House, Committee on Science and Astronautics, Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development, Technical Information for Congress, Report, Serial A, Chapter 6, 'Congressional Response to Project Camelot', 92nd Congress, 1st session (25 April 1969, revised 15 May 1971); Irving Louis Horowitz (ed.), The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship Between Social Science and Practical Politics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967). The best historical study of Project Camelot places it in the context of the growing authority of psychological experts in the nation's cultural and political life during the early Cold War decades: Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Los Angeles & Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), Chapters 5 & 6; also Herman, 'The Career of Cold War Psychology', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 52-85.
3. Good sources from the 1960s on Project Camelot include: US Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, Behavioral Sciences and the National Security, Report No. 4, together with Part 9 of Winning the Cold War: The US Ideological Offensive, hearings [hereafter, BSNS], 89th Congress, 1st session (1965); US Congress, House, Committee on Science and Astronautics, Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development, Technical Information for Congress, Report, Serial A, Chapter 6, 'Congressional Response to Project Camelot', 92nd Congress, 1st session (25 April 1969, revised 15 May 1971); Irving Louis Horowitz (ed.), The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship Between Social Science and Practical Politics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967). The best historical study of Project Camelot places it in the context of the growing authority of psychological experts in the nation's cultural and political life during the early Cold War decades: Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Los Angeles & Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), Chapters 5 & 6; also Herman, 'The Career of Cold War Psychology', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 52-85.
4. Good sources from the 1960s on Project Camelot include: US Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, Behavioral Sciences and the National Security, Report No. 4, together with Part 9 of Winning the Cold War: The US Ideological Offensive, hearings [hereafter, BSNS], 89th Congress, 1st session (1965); US Congress, House, Committee on Science and Astronautics, Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development, Technical Information for Congress, Report, Serial A, Chapter 6, 'Congressional Response to Project Camelot', 92nd Congress, 1st session (25 April 1969, revised 15 May 1971); Irving Louis Horowitz (ed.), The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship Between Social Science and Practical Politics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967). The best historical study of Project Camelot places it in the context of the growing authority of psychological experts in the nation's cultural and political life during the early Cold War decades: Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Los Angeles & Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), Chapters 5 & 6; also Herman, 'The Career of Cold War Psychology', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 52-85.
5. Good sources from the 1960s on Project Camelot include: US Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, Behavioral Sciences and the National Security, Report No. 4, together with Part 9 of Winning the Cold War: The US Ideological Offensive, hearings [hereafter, BSNS], 89th Congress, 1st session (1965); US Congress, House, Committee on Science and Astronautics, Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development, Technical Information for Congress, Report, Serial A, Chapter 6, 'Congressional Response to Project Camelot', 92nd Congress, 1st session (25 April 1969, revised 15 May 1971); Irving Louis Horowitz (ed.), The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship Between Social Science and Practical Politics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967). The best historical study of Project Camelot places it in the context of the growing authority of psychological experts in the nation's cultural and political life during the early Cold War decades: Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Los Angeles & Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), Chapters 5 & 6; also Herman, 'The Career of Cold War Psychology', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 52-85.
6. Good sources from the 1960s on Project Camelot include: US Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, Behavioral Sciences and the National Security, Report No. 4, together with Part 9 of Winning the Cold War: The US Ideological Offensive, hearings [hereafter, BSNS], 89th Congress, 1st session (1965); US Congress, House, Committee on Science and Astronautics, Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development, Technical Information for Congress, Report, Serial A, Chapter 6, 'Congressional Response to Project Camelot', 92nd Congress, 1st session (25 April 1969, revised 15 May 1971); Irving Louis Horowitz (ed.), The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship Between Social Science and Practical Politics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967). The best historical study of Project Camelot places it in the context of the growing authority of psychological experts in the nation's cultural and political life during the early Cold War decades: Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Los Angeles & Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), Chapters 5 & 6; also Herman, 'The Career of Cold War Psychology', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 52-85.
7. Good sources from the 1960s on Project Camelot include: US Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, Behavioral Sciences and the National Security, Report No. 4, together with Part 9 of Winning the Cold War: The US Ideological Offensive, hearings [hereafter, BSNS], 89th Congress, 1st session (1965); US Congress, House, Committee on Science and Astronautics, Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development, Technical Information for Congress, Report, Serial A, Chapter 6, 'Congressional Response to Project Camelot', 92nd Congress, 1st session (25 April 1969, revised 15 May 1971); Irving Louis Horowitz (ed.), The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship Between Social Science and Practical Politics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967). The best historical study of Project Camelot places it in the context of the growing authority of psychological experts in the nation's cultural and political life during the early Cold War decades: Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Los Angeles & Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), Chapters 5 & 6; also Herman, 'The Career of Cold War Psychology', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 52-85.
8. There is a large literature about the emergence of professional social science. The most comprehensive study, whose footnotes provide a useful guide to the literature, is Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
9. For a useful overview, though it does not aim for historical sophistication, see Daniel Bell, 'The Social Sciences since the Second World War', in Encyclopedia Britannica, The Great Ideas Today (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1979), 139-81.
10. Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The 'Objectivity Question' and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 546.
11. Ibid., 546-63, at 546.
12. The literature on social science during World War II is large. Useful works include: Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, 'Science, Democracy, and Ethics: Mobilizing Culture and Personality for World War II', History of Anthropology, Vol. 4 (1986), 184-217; James H. Capshew, Psychologists on the March: Science, Practice, and Professional Identity in America, 1929-1969 (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), Chapters 2-7; Peter Buck, 'Adjusting to Military Life: The Social Sciences Go to War, 1941-1950', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 203-52; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, Chapters 2-4.
13. The literature on social science during World War II is large. Useful works include: Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, 'Science, Democracy, and Ethics: Mobilizing Culture and Personality for World War II', History of Anthropology, Vol. 4 (1986), 184-217; James H. Capshew, Psychologists on the March: Science, Practice, and Professional Identity in America, 1929-1969 (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), Chapters 2-7; Peter Buck, 'Adjusting to Military Life: The Social Sciences Go to War, 1941-1950', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 203-52; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, Chapters 2-4.
14. The literature on social science during World War II is large. Useful works include: Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, 'Science, Democracy, and Ethics: Mobilizing Culture and Personality for World War II', History of Anthropology, Vol. 4 (1986), 184-217; James H. Capshew, Psychologists on the March: Science, Practice, and Professional Identity in America, 1929-1969 (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), Chapters 2-7; Peter Buck, 'Adjusting to Military Life: The Social Sciences Go to War, 1941-1950', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 203-52; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, Chapters 2-4.
15. The literature on social science during World War II is large. Useful works include: Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, 'Science, Democracy, and Ethics: Mobilizing Culture and Personality for World War II', History of Anthropology, Vol. 4 (1986), 184-217; James H. Capshew, Psychologists on the March: Science, Practice, and Professional Identity in America, 1929-1969 (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), Chapters 2-7; Peter Buck, 'Adjusting to Military Life: The Social Sciences Go to War, 1941-1950', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 203-52; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, Chapters 2-4.
16. On the ascendancy of the physical sciences in post-war science policy, see Daniel Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1978), Chapters 21-23; Daniel Lee Kleinman, Politics on the Endless Frontier: Postwar Research Policy in the United States (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1995), Chapter 3; Silvan S. Schweber, 'The Mutual Embrace of Science and the Military: ONR and the Growth of Physics in the United States after World War II', in Everett Mendelsohn, Merritt Roe Smith and Peter Weingart (eds), Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook No. 12 (Dordrecht & Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988), 1-45; Paul Hoch, 'The Crystallization of a Strategic Alliance: The American Physics Elite and the Military in the 1940s', ibid., 87-116.
17. On the ascendancy of the physical sciences in post-war science policy, see Daniel Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1978), Chapters 21-23; Daniel Lee Kleinman, Politics on the Endless Frontier: Postwar Research Policy in the United States (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1995), Chapter 3; Silvan S. Schweber, 'The Mutual Embrace of Science and the Military: ONR and the Growth of Physics in the United States after World War II', in Everett Mendelsohn, Merritt Roe Smith and Peter Weingart (eds), Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook No. 12 (Dordrecht & Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988), 1-45; Paul Hoch, 'The Crystallization of a Strategic Alliance: The American Physics Elite and the Military in the 1940s', ibid., 87-116.
18. On the ascendancy of the physical sciences in post-war science policy, see Daniel Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1978), Chapters 21-23; Daniel Lee Kleinman, Politics on the Endless Frontier: Postwar Research Policy in the United States (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1995), Chapter 3; Silvan S. Schweber, 'The Mutual Embrace of Science and the Military: ONR and the Growth of Physics in the United States after World War II', in Everett Mendelsohn, Merritt Roe Smith and Peter Weingart (eds), Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook No. 12 (Dordrecht & Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988), 1-45; Paul Hoch, 'The Crystallization of a Strategic Alliance: The American Physics Elite and the Military in the 1940s', ibid., 87-116.
19. On the ascendancy of the physical sciences in post-war science policy, see Daniel Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1978), Chapters 21-23; Daniel Lee Kleinman, Politics on the Endless Frontier: Postwar Research Policy in the United States (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1995), Chapter 3; Silvan S. Schweber, 'The Mutual Embrace of Science and the Military: ONR and the Growth of Physics in the United States after World War II', in Everett Mendelsohn, Merritt Roe Smith and Peter Weingart (eds), Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook No. 12 (Dordrecht & Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988), 1-45; Paul Hoch, 'The Crystallization of a Strategic Alliance: The American Physics Elite and the Military in the 1940s', ibid., 87-116.
20. Samuel Z. Klausner and Victor M. Lidz (eds), The Nationalization of the Social Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Otto N. Larsen, Milestones & Millstones: Social Science at the National Science Foundation, 1945-1991 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992), Chapter 1; Roberta Balstad Miller, 'The Social Sciences and the Politics of Science: The 1940s', American Sociologist, Vol. 17 (1982), 205-09. On NSF's social science programme in the 1950s, see Daniel Lee Kleinman and Mark Solovey, 'Hot Science/Cold War: The National Science Foundation After World War II', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 110-39; Larsen, Milestones & Millstones, op. cit., Chapter 3.
21. Samuel Z. Klausner and Victor M. Lidz (eds), The Nationalization of the Social Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Otto N. Larsen, Milestones & Millstones: Social Science at the National Science Foundation, 1945-1991 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992), Chapter 1; Roberta Balstad Miller, 'The Social Sciences and the Politics of Science: The 1940s', American Sociologist, Vol. 17 (1982), 205-09. On NSF's social science programme in the 1950s, see Daniel Lee Kleinman and Mark Solovey, 'Hot Science/Cold War: The National Science Foundation After World War II', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 110-39; Larsen, Milestones & Millstones, op. cit., Chapter 3.
22. Samuel Z. Klausner and Victor M. Lidz (eds), The Nationalization of the Social Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Otto N. Larsen, Milestones & Millstones: Social Science at the National Science Foundation, 1945-1991 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992), Chapter 1; Roberta Balstad Miller, 'The Social Sciences and the Politics of Science: The 1940s', American Sociologist, Vol. 17 (1982), 205-09. On NSF's social science programme in the 1950s, see Daniel Lee Kleinman and Mark Solovey, 'Hot Science/Cold War: The National Science Foundation After World War II', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 110-39; Larsen, Milestones & Millstones, op. cit., Chapter 3.
23. Samuel Z. Klausner and Victor M. Lidz (eds), The Nationalization of the Social Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Otto N. Larsen, Milestones & Millstones: Social Science at the National Science Foundation, 1945-1991 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992), Chapter 1; Roberta Balstad Miller, 'The Social Sciences and the Politics of Science: The 1940s', American Sociologist, Vol. 17 (1982), 205-09. On NSF's social science programme in the 1950s, see Daniel Lee Kleinman and Mark Solovey, 'Hot Science/Cold War: The National Science Foundation After World War II', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 110-39; Larsen, Milestones & Millstones, op. cit., Chapter 3.
24. Samuel Z. Klausner and Victor M. Lidz (eds), The Nationalization of the Social Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Otto N. Larsen, Milestones & Millstones: Social Science at the National Science Foundation, 1945-1991 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992), Chapter 1; Roberta Balstad Miller, 'The Social Sciences and the Politics of Science: The 1940s', American Sociologist, Vol. 17 (1982), 205-09. On NSF's social science programme in the 1950s, see Daniel Lee Kleinman and Mark Solovey, 'Hot Science/Cold War: The National Science Foundation After World War II', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 110-39; Larsen, Milestones & Millstones, op. cit., Chapter 3.
25. Kleinman, Politics on the Endless Frontier, op. cit. note 8, 147-50.
26. John G. Darley, 'Psychology and the Office of Naval Research: A Decade of Development', American Psychologist, Vol. 12 (1957), 305-23; Lyle H. Lanier, 'The Psychological and Social Sciences in the National Military Establishment', ibid., Vol. 4 (1949), 127-47, esp. 137-38.
27. John G. Darley, 'Psychology and the Office of Naval Research: A Decade of Development', American Psychologist, Vol. 12 (1957), 305-23; Lyle H. Lanier, 'The Psychological and Social Sciences in the National Military Establishment', ibid., Vol. 4 (1949), 127-47, esp. 137-38.
28. Kevles, The Physicists, op. cit. note 8, Chapters 19-23.
29. Miller, 'Social Sciences', op. cit. note 9.
30. On the difficulties social scientists and their patrons encountered during the McCarthy era, see Harry Alpert, 'Congressmen, Social Scientists, and Attitudes Toward Federal Support of Social Science Research', American Sociological Review, Vol. 23 (1958), 682-86; Ellen W. Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens, Jr, The Academic Mind: Social Scientists in a Time of Crisis (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1958); David W. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations: The Use and Abuse of An American Dilemma, 1944-1969 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 172-75.
31. On the difficulties social scientists and their patrons encountered during the McCarthy era, see Harry Alpert, 'Congressmen, Social Scientists, and Attitudes Toward Federal Support of Social Science Research', American Sociological Review, Vol. 23 (1958), 682-86; Ellen W. Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens, Jr, The Academic Mind: Social Scientists in a Time of Crisis (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1958); David W. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations: The Use and Abuse of An American Dilemma, 1944-1969 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 172-75.
32. On the difficulties social scientists and their patrons encountered during the McCarthy era, see Harry Alpert, 'Congressmen, Social Scientists, and Attitudes Toward Federal Support of Social Science Research', American Sociological Review, Vol. 23 (1958), 682-86; Ellen W. Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens, Jr, The Academic Mind: Social Scientists in a Time of Crisis (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1958); David W. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations: The Use and Abuse of An American Dilemma, 1944-1969 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 172-75.
33. On the difficulties social scientists and their patrons encountered during the McCarthy era, see Harry Alpert, 'Congressmen, Social Scientists, and Attitudes Toward Federal Support of Social Science Research', American Sociological Review, Vol. 23 (1958), 682-86; Ellen W. Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens, Jr, The Academic Mind: Social Scientists in a Time of Crisis (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1958); David W. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations: The Use and Abuse of An American Dilemma, 1944-1969 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 172-75.
34. Daniel J. Kevles, 'Testing the Army's Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I', Journal of American History, Vol. 55 (1968), 565-81; Franz Samelson, 'World War I Intelligence Testing and the Development of Psychology', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 13 (1977), 274-82; John Carson, 'Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence', Isis, Vol. 84, No. 2 (June 1993), 278-309.
35. Daniel J. Kevles, 'Testing the Army's Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I', Journal of American History, Vol. 55 (1968), 565-81; Franz Samelson, 'World War I Intelligence Testing and the Development of Psychology', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 13 (1977), 274-82; John Carson, 'Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence', Isis, Vol. 84, No. 2 (June 1993), 278-309.
36. Daniel J. Kevles, 'Testing the Army's Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I', Journal of American History, Vol. 55 (1968), 565-81; Franz Samelson, 'World War I Intelligence Testing and the Development of Psychology', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 13 (1977), 274-82; John Carson, 'Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence', Isis, Vol. 84, No. 2 (June 1993), 278-309.
37. Capshew, Psychologists on the March, op. cit. note 7, Chapters 2-7; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, Chapters 2-6; John Marks, The Search for the 'Manchurian Candidate' (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1979).
38. Capshew, Psychologists on the March, op. cit. note 7, Chapters 2-7; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, Chapters 2-6; John Marks, The Search for the 'Manchurian Candidate' (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1979).
39. Capshew, Psychologists on the March, op. cit. note 7, Chapters 2-7; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, Chapters 2-6; John Marks, The Search for the 'Manchurian Candidate' (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1979).
40. Deborah Welch Larson, 'Deterrence Theory and the Cold War', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 86-109.
41. Stephen P. Waring, 'Cold Calculus: The Cold War and Operations Research', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 28-51; Thomas P. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus (New York: Pantheon, 1998); Michael A. Fortun & Silvan S. Schweber, 'Scientists and the Legacy of World War II: The Case of Operations Research (OR)', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 4 (November 1993), 595-642; Philip Mirowski, 'Cyborg Agonistes: Economics Meets Operations Research in Mid-Century', ibid., Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 685-718.
42. Stephen P. Waring, 'Cold Calculus: The Cold War and Operations Research', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 28-51; Thomas P. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus (New York: Pantheon, 1998); Michael A. Fortun & Silvan S. Schweber, 'Scientists and the Legacy of World War II: The Case of Operations Research (OR)', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 4 (November 1993), 595-642; Philip Mirowski, 'Cyborg Agonistes: Economics Meets Operations Research in Mid-Century', ibid., Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 685-718.
43. Stephen P. Waring, 'Cold Calculus: The Cold War and Operations Research', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 28-51; Thomas P. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus (New York: Pantheon, 1998); Michael A. Fortun & Silvan S. Schweber, 'Scientists and the Legacy of World War II: The Case of Operations Research (OR)', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 4 (November 1993), 595-642; Philip Mirowski, 'Cyborg Agonistes: Economics Meets Operations Research in Mid-Century', ibid., Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 685-718.
44. Stephen P. Waring, 'Cold Calculus: The Cold War and Operations Research', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 28-51; Thomas P. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus (New York: Pantheon, 1998); Michael A. Fortun & Silvan S. Schweber, 'Scientists and the Legacy of World War II: The Case of Operations Research (OR)', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 4 (November 1993), 595-642; Philip Mirowski, 'Cyborg Agonistes: Economics Meets Operations Research in Mid-Century', ibid., Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 685-718.
45. Robert J. Leonard, 'War as a "Simple Economic Problem": The Rise of an Economics of Defense', in Craufurd D. Goodwin (ed.), Economics and National Security: A History of Their Interaction, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 23 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), 261-83; Michael A. Bernstein, 'American Economics and the National Security State, 1941-1953', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 8-26; William Poundstone, Prisoner's Dilemma (New York: Doubleday, 1992); E. Roy Weintraub (ed.), Toward a History of Game Theory, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 24 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992); Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, 'Simulating the Unthinkable: Gaming Future War in the 1950s and 1960s', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 2 (April 2000), 163-223.
46. Robert J. Leonard, 'War as a "Simple Economic Problem": The Rise of an Economics of Defense', in Craufurd D. Goodwin (ed.), Economics and National Security: A History of Their Interaction, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 23 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), 261-83; Michael A. Bernstein, 'American Economics and the National Security State, 1941-1953', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 8-26; William Poundstone, Prisoner's Dilemma (New York: Doubleday, 1992); E. Roy Weintraub (ed.), Toward a History of Game Theory, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 24 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992); Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, 'Simulating the Unthinkable: Gaming Future War in the 1950s and 1960s', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 2 (April 2000), 163-223.
47. Robert J. Leonard, 'War as a "Simple Economic Problem": The Rise of an Economics of Defense', in Craufurd D. Goodwin (ed.), Economics and National Security: A History of Their Interaction, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 23 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), 261-83; Michael A. Bernstein, 'American Economics and the National Security State, 1941-1953', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 8-26; William Poundstone, Prisoner's Dilemma (New York: Doubleday, 1992); E. Roy Weintraub (ed.), Toward a History of Game Theory, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 24 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992); Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, 'Simulating the Unthinkable: Gaming Future War in the 1950s and 1960s', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 2 (April 2000), 163-223.
48. Robert J. Leonard, 'War as a "Simple Economic Problem": The Rise of an Economics of Defense', in Craufurd D. Goodwin (ed.), Economics and National Security: A History of Their Interaction, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 23 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), 261-83; Michael A. Bernstein, 'American Economics and the National Security State, 1941-1953', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 8-26; William Poundstone, Prisoner's Dilemma (New York: Doubleday, 1992); E. Roy Weintraub (ed.), Toward a History of Game Theory, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 24 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992); Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, 'Simulating the Unthinkable: Gaming Future War in the 1950s and 1960s', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 2 (April 2000), 163-223.
49. Robert J. Leonard, 'War as a "Simple Economic Problem": The Rise of an Economics of Defense', in Craufurd D. Goodwin (ed.), Economics and National Security: A History of Their Interaction, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 23 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), 261-83; Michael A. Bernstein, 'American Economics and the National Security State, 1941-1953', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 8-26; William Poundstone, Prisoner's Dilemma (New York: Doubleday, 1992); E. Roy Weintraub (ed.), Toward a History of Game Theory, Annual Supplement to the History of Political Economy, Vol. 24 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992); Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, 'Simulating the Unthinkable: Gaming Future War in the 1950s and 1960s', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 2 (April 2000), 163-223.
50. Sigmund Diamond, Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945-1955 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Robert A. McCaughey, International Studies and Academic Enterprise: A Chapter in the Enclosure of American Learning (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984).
51. Sigmund Diamond, Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945-1955 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Robert A. McCaughey, International Studies and Academic Enterprise: A Chapter in the Enclosure of American Learning (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984).
52. Irene L. Gendzier, Managing Political Change: Social Scientists and the Third World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995); Gendzier, 'Play It Again Sam: The Practice and Apology of Development', in Christopher Simpson (ed.), Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York: The New Press, 1998), 195-231; Immanuel Wallerstein, 'The Unintended Consequences of Cold War Area Studies', in Noam Chomsky (ed.), The Cold War & the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York: The New Press, 1997), 195-231; Bruce Cumings, 'Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies During and After the Cold War', in Simpson (ed.), Universities & Empire, op. cit., 159-88.
53. Irene L. Gendzier, Managing Political Change: Social Scientists and the Third World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995); Gendzier, 'Play It Again Sam: The Practice and Apology of Development', in Christopher Simpson (ed.), Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York: The New Press, 1998), 195-231; Immanuel Wallerstein, 'The Unintended Consequences of Cold War Area Studies', in Noam Chomsky (ed.), The Cold War & the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York: The New Press, 1997), 195-231; Bruce Cumings, 'Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies During and After the Cold War', in Simpson (ed.), Universities & Empire, op. cit., 159-88.
54. Irene L. Gendzier, Managing Political Change: Social Scientists and the Third World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995); Gendzier, 'Play It Again Sam: The Practice and Apology of Development', in Christopher Simpson (ed.), Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York: The New Press, 1998), 195-231; Immanuel Wallerstein, 'The Unintended Consequences of Cold War Area Studies', in Noam Chomsky (ed.), The Cold War & the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York: The New Press, 1997), 195-231; Bruce Cumings, 'Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies During and After the Cold War', in Simpson (ed.), Universities & Empire, op. cit., 159-88.
55. Irene L. Gendzier, Managing Political Change: Social Scientists and the Third World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995); Gendzier, 'Play It Again Sam: The Practice and Apology of Development', in Christopher Simpson (ed.), Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York: The New Press, 1998), 195-231; Immanuel Wallerstein, 'The Unintended Consequences of Cold War Area Studies', in Noam Chomsky (ed.), The Cold War & the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York: The New Press, 1997), 195-231; Bruce Cumings, 'Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies During and After the Cold War', in Simpson (ed.), Universities & Empire, op. cit., 159-88.
56. Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
57. Christopher Simpson, 'Universities, Empire, and the Production of Knowledge: An Introduction', in Simpson (ed.), Universities & Empire, op. cit. note 21, xi-xxxiv, at xii.
58. Charles Bray, 'Toward a Technology of Human Behavior for Defense Use', American Psychologist, Vol. 17 (1962), 527-41, at 528.
59. Bell, 'The Social Sciences', op. cit. note 4. Examples of disciplinary histories that point to a heightened postwar emphasis on proper methodology include: David M. Ricci, Tragedy of Political Science: Politics, Scholarship, and Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984), Chapter 5; Jennifer Platt, A History of Sociological Research Methods in America, 1920-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
60. Bell, 'The Social Sciences', op. cit. note 4. Examples of disciplinary histories that point to a heightened postwar emphasis on proper methodology include: David M. Ricci, Tragedy of Political Science: Politics, Scholarship, and Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984), Chapter 5; Jennifer Platt, A History of Sociological Research Methods in America, 1920-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
61. Bell, 'The Social Sciences', op. cit. note 4. Examples of disciplinary histories that point to a heightened postwar emphasis on proper methodology include: David M. Ricci, Tragedy of Political Science: Politics, Scholarship, and Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984), Chapter 5; Jennifer Platt, A History of Sociological Research Methods in America, 1920-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
62. David Hollinger, 'Science as a Weapon in Kulturkämpfe in the United States During and After World War II', Isis, Vol. 86, No. 3 (September 1995), 440-54.
63. See the various task committee reports and the final report of the Smithsonian's Research Group in Psychology and the Social Sciences, Record Unit 179, Records 1957-1963, Archives and Special Collections of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
64. The Behavioral Sciences Sub-panel of the President's Science Advisory Committee, 'Strengthening the Behavioral Sciences', Science, Vol. 136 (20 April 1962), 233-41, at 238.
65. Bernard Berelson, 'Behavioral Sciences', in David L. Sills (ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 2 (New York: Free Press, 1968), 41-45.
66. Yans-McLaughlin, 'Science, Democracy & Ethics', op. cit. note 7.
67. Simpson, Science of Coercion, op. cit. note 22.
68. Gendzier, Managing Political Change, op. cit. note 21; Michael E. Latham, 'Ideology, Social Science, and Destiny: Modernization and the Kennedy-Era Alliance for Progress', Diplomatic History, Vol. 22 (1998), 199-229. Studies of the impact of World War II and the Cold War on the goals and orientations of the social sciences are part of a much larger literature on Cold War American science, and this theme runs throughout the essays in the present volume. See the classic article by Paul Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 18, Part 1 (1987), 149-229, and the useful historiographic essay by Stuart W. Leslie, 'Science and Politics in Cold War America', in Margaret C. Jacob (ed.), The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1994), 199-233.
69. Gendzier, Managing Political Change, op. cit. note 21; Michael E. Latham, 'Ideology, Social Science, and Destiny: Modernization and the Kennedy-Era Alliance for Progress', Diplomatic History, Vol. 22 (1998), 199-229. Studies of the impact of World War II and the Cold War on the goals and orientations of the social sciences are part of a much larger literature on Cold War American science, and this theme runs throughout the essays in the present volume. See the classic article by Paul Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 18, Part 1 (1987), 149-229, and the useful historiographic essay by Stuart W. Leslie, 'Science and Politics in Cold War America', in Margaret C. Jacob (ed.), The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1994), 199-233.
70. Gendzier, Managing Political Change, op. cit. note 21; Michael E. Latham, 'Ideology, Social Science, and Destiny: Modernization and the Kennedy-Era Alliance for Progress', Diplomatic History, Vol. 22 (1998), 199-229. Studies of the impact of World War II and the Cold War on the goals and orientations of the social sciences are part of a much larger literature on Cold War American science, and this theme runs throughout the essays in the present volume. See the classic article by Paul Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 18, Part 1 (1987), 149-229, and the useful historiographic essay by Stuart W. Leslie, 'Science and Politics in Cold War America', in Margaret C. Jacob (ed.), The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1994), 199-233.
71. Gendzier, Managing Political Change, op. cit. note 21; Michael E. Latham, 'Ideology, Social Science, and Destiny: Modernization and the Kennedy-Era Alliance for Progress', Diplomatic History, Vol. 22 (1998), 199-229. Studies of the impact of World War II and the Cold War on the goals and orientations of the social sciences are part of a much larger literature on Cold War American science, and this theme runs throughout the essays in the present volume. See the classic article by Paul Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 18, Part 1 (1987), 149-229, and the useful historiographic essay by Stuart W. Leslie, 'Science and Politics in Cold War America', in Margaret C. Jacob (ed.), The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1994), 199-233.
72. Bray, 'Toward a Technology of Human Behavior', op. cit. note 24, 528-29.
73. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus, op. cit. note 18, 164. See also: Leonard, 'War as a "Simple Economic Problem"', op. cit. note 19, 269-79; Fortun & Schweber, 'Scientists and the Legacy ofWWII', op. cit. note 18, 627; Angela M. O'Rand, 'Mathematizing Social Science in the 1950s: The Early Development and Diffusion of Game Theory', in Weintraub (ed.), Toward a History of Game Theory, op. cit. note 19, 177-204.
74. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus, op. cit. note 18, 164. See also: Leonard, 'War as a "Simple Economic Problem"', op. cit. note 19, 269-79; Fortun & Schweber, 'Scientists and the Legacy ofWWII', op. cit. note 18, 627; Angela M. O'Rand, 'Mathematizing Social Science in the 1950s: The Early Development and Diffusion of Game Theory', in Weintraub (ed.), Toward a History of Game Theory, op. cit. note 19, 177-204.
75. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus, op. cit. note 18, 164. See also: Leonard, 'War as a "Simple Economic Problem"', op. cit. note 19, 269-79; Fortun & Schweber, 'Scientists and the Legacy ofWWII', op. cit. note 18, 627; Angela M. O'Rand, 'Mathematizing Social Science in the 1950s: The Early Development and Diffusion of Game Theory', in Weintraub (ed.), Toward a History of Game Theory, op. cit. note 19, 177-204.
76. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus, op. cit. note 18, 164. See also: Leonard, 'War as a "Simple Economic Problem"', op. cit. note 19, 269-79; Fortun & Schweber, 'Scientists and the Legacy ofWWII', op. cit. note 18, 627; Angela M. O'Rand, 'Mathematizing Social Science in the 1950s: The Early Development and Diffusion of Game Theory', in Weintraub (ed.), Toward a History of Game Theory, op. cit. note 19, 177-204.
77. James A. Smith, The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991), 135-40.
78. David A. Hollinger, 'The Defense of Democracy and Robert K. Merton's Formulation of the Scientific Ethos', Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Culture, Past and Present, Vol. 4 (1983), 1-15; Hollinger, 'Science as a Weapon', op. cit. note 26; Everett Mendelsohn, 'Robert K. Merton: The Celebration and Defense of Science', Science in Context, Vol. 3 (1989), 269-89.
79. David A. Hollinger, 'The Defense of Democracy and Robert K. Merton's Formulation of the Scientific Ethos', Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Culture, Past and Present, Vol. 4 (1983), 1-15; Hollinger, 'Science as a Weapon', op. cit. note 26; Everett Mendelsohn, 'Robert K. Merton: The Celebration and Defense of Science', Science in Context, Vol. 3 (1989), 269-89.
80. David A. Hollinger, 'The Defense of Democracy and Robert K. Merton's Formulation of the Scientific Ethos', Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Culture, Past and Present, Vol. 4 (1983), 1-15; Hollinger, 'Science as a Weapon', op. cit. note 26; Everett Mendelsohn, 'Robert K. Merton: The Celebration and Defense of Science', Science in Context, Vol. 3 (1989), 269-89.
81. Jessica Wang, American Science in an Age of Anxiety: Scientists, Anticommunism, and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
82. From psychology, John G. Darley emphasized that 'ONR's program emerged from the research interests of civilian scientists': see Darley, 'Psychology and the ONR', op. cit. note 11, 319. On ONR more generally, see Anon., 'The Scientists', Fortune Magazine (October 1948), 106-12, 166, 168, 170, 173-74, 176; Harvey M. Sapolsky, 'Academic Science and the Military: The Years Since the Second World War', in Nathan Reingold (ed.), The Sciences in the American Context: New Perspectives (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979), 379-99.
83. From psychology, John G. Darley emphasized that 'ONR's program emerged from the research interests of civilian scientists': see Darley, 'Psychology and the ONR', op. cit. note 11, 319. On ONR more generally, see Anon., 'The Scientists', Fortune Magazine (October 1948), 106-12, 166, 168, 170, 173-74, 176; Harvey M. Sapolsky, 'Academic Science and the Military: The Years Since the Second World War', in Nathan Reingold (ed.), The Sciences in the American Context: New Perspectives (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979), 379-99.
84. From psychology, John G. Darley emphasized that 'ONR's program emerged from the research interests of civilian scientists': see Darley, 'Psychology and the ONR', op. cit. note 11, 319. On ONR more generally, see Anon., 'The Scientists', Fortune Magazine (October 1948), 106-12, 166, 168, 170, 173-74, 176; Harvey M. Sapolsky, 'Academic Science and the Military: The Years Since the Second World War', in Nathan Reingold (ed.), The Sciences in the American Context: New Perspectives (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979), 379-99.
85. Allan A. Needell, '"Truth is Our Weapon": Project TROY, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relations in the National Security State', Diplomatic History, Vol. 17 (1993), 399-420, at 418.
86. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 'Farewell Radio and Television Address to the American People', in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, 1960-61 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1961), 1035-40, quotes at 1038, 1039.
87. Gene M. Lyons, The Uneasy Partnership: Social Science and the Federal Government in the Twentieth Century (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1969), Chapters 5-7; Robert C. Wood, Whatever Possessed the President? Academic Experts and Presidential Policy, 1960-1988 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), Chapters 2-3; Smith, The Idea Brokers, op. cit. note 35, Chapters 6-7.
88. Gene M. Lyons, The Uneasy Partnership: Social Science and the Federal Government in the Twentieth Century (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1969), Chapters 5-7; Robert C. Wood, Whatever Possessed the President? Academic Experts and Presidential Policy, 1960-1988 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), Chapters 2-3; Smith, The Idea Brokers, op. cit. note 35, Chapters 6-7.
89. Gene M. Lyons, The Uneasy Partnership: Social Science and the Federal Government in the Twentieth Century (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1969), Chapters 5-7; Robert C. Wood, Whatever Possessed the President? Academic Experts and Presidential Policy, 1960-1988 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), Chapters 2-3; Smith, The Idea Brokers, op. cit. note 35, Chapters 6-7.
90. Kruschev and China paper quoted in BSNS, 71. Kennedy's address is also discussed in this document.
91. BSNS, 72.
92. 'Congressional Response to Project Camelot', op. cit. note 2, 128-29.
93. DSB report quoted in BSNS, 3R.
94. BSNS, 28-30.
95. See Document 1 in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 47-49. Documents 1, 2 and 3 in this volume come from SORO documents about Project Camelot from December of 1964. Document 4 comes from a public description of Camelot released by SORO in July of 1965, at about the time when Camelot was cancelled.
96. Document 3 in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 57-58.
97. BSNS, 61-62, at 61.
98. Rex D. Hopper, 'The Revolutionary Process: A Frame of Reference for the Study of Revolutionary Movements', Social Forces, Vol. 28 (1950), 270-79, at 270. On Hopper's background, see Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, 146-47.
99. Rex D. Hopper, 'The Revolutionary Process: A Frame of Reference for the Study of Revolutionary Movements', Social Forces, Vol. 28 (1950), 270-79, at 270. On Hopper's background, see Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, 146-47.
100. BSNS, 30-32. On Camelot as basic science, also see notes 75-76 below, and the corresponding text [p. 18].
101. Deitchman, in ibid., 72.
102. Vallance, in ibid., 22.
103. Ibid., 20.
104. Ibid., 5.
105. Dick, in ibid., 31.
106. Comment about Manhattan Project noted by Ralph Beals in Politics of Social Research, op. cit. note 1, 6; Beals' own quotation is at 7. Comment about possibility of $50m a year is noted by
107. Marshall Sahlins in 'The Established Order: Do Not Fold, Spindle, or Mutilate', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 71-79, at 71.
108. Roger L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 237-42; Kevles, The Physicists, op. cit. note 8, 401-09; Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), Chapter 9; on American intellectuals and the Vietnam War more generally, see Robert R. Tomes, Apocalypse Then: American Intellectuals and the Vietnam War: 1954-1975 (New York: New York University Press, 1998). On intellectuals in the 1960s, see Howard Brick, Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, pbk edn, 2000; originally published by Twayne, 1998).
109. Roger L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 237-42; Kevles, The Physicists, op. cit. note 8, 401-09; Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), Chapter 9; on American intellectuals and the Vietnam War more generally, see Robert R. Tomes, Apocalypse Then: American Intellectuals and the Vietnam War: 1954-1975 (New York: New York University Press, 1998). On intellectuals in the 1960s, see Howard Brick, Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, pbk edn, 2000; originally published by Twayne, 1998).
110. Roger L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 237-42; Kevles, The Physicists, op. cit. note 8, 401-09; Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), Chapter 9; on American intellectuals and the Vietnam War more generally, see Robert R. Tomes, Apocalypse Then: American Intellectuals and the Vietnam War: 1954-1975 (New York: New York University Press, 1998). On intellectuals in the 1960s, see Howard Brick, Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, pbk edn, 2000; originally published by Twayne, 1998).
111. Roger L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 237-42; Kevles, The Physicists, op. cit. note 8, 401-09; Stuart W. Leslie, The
112. Roger L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 237-42; Kevles, The Physicists, op. cit. note 8, 401-09; Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), Chapter 9; on American intellectuals and the Vietnam War more generally, see Robert R. Tomes, Apocalypse Then: American Intellectuals and the Vietnam War: 1954-1975 (New York: New York University Press, 1998). On intellectuals in the 1960s, see Howard Brick, Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, pbk edn, 2000; originally published by Twayne, 1998).
113. Maslow's ideas are discussed in Roy Jose DeCarvalho, The Founders of Humanistic Psychology (New York: Praeger, 1991), passim.
114. Job L. Dittberner, The End of Ideology and American Social Thought, 1930-1960 (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1979), Chapters 3-6; Chaim Waxman (ed.), The End of Ideology (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1969).
115. Job L. Dittberner, The End of Ideology and American Social Thought, 1930-1960 (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1979), Chapters 3-6; Chaim Waxman (ed.), The End of Ideology (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1969).
116. Floyd W. Matson, The Broken Image: Man, Science and Society (New York: George Braziller, 1964), remains a readable, provocative interpretation of 20th-century developments from a wide range of fields in the physical, biological and social sciences, as well as philosophy, that called into question mechanistic, deterministic approaches in the social sciences.
117. Material in this paragraph and the next comes from the following sources: George E. Lowe, 'The Camelot Affair', Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 22, No. 4 (May 1966), 44-48, quote from Galtung at 45; Johan Galtung, 'After Camelot', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 281-312. A Chilean news magazine, Ercilla, said that Nutini identified (apparently incorrectly) distinguished social scientists including Kingsley Davis, Seymour Lipset and Robert Merton as the study's directors. See Kalman H. Silvert, 'American Academic Ethics and Social Research Abroad: The Lesson of Project Camelot', in Horowitz (ed.), ibid., 80-106, at 85.
118. Material in this paragraph and the next comes from the following sources: George E. Lowe, 'The Camelot Affair', Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 22, No. 4 (May 1966), 44-48, quote from Galtung at 45; Johan Galtung, 'After Camelot', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 281-312. A Chilean news magazine, Ercilla, said that Nutini identified (apparently incorrectly) distinguished social scientists including Kingsley Davis, Seymour Lipset and Robert Merton as the study's directors. See Kalman H. Silvert, 'American Academic Ethics and Social Research Abroad: The Lesson of Project Camelot', in Horowitz (ed.), ibid., 80-106, at 85.
119. Material in this paragraph and the next comes from the following sources: George E. Lowe, 'The Camelot Affair', Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 22, No. 4 (May 1966), 44-48, quote from Galtung at 45; Johan Galtung, 'After Camelot', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 281-312. A Chilean news magazine, Ercilla, said that Nutini identified (apparently incorrectly) distinguished social scientists including Kingsley Davis, Seymour Lipset and Robert Merton as the study's directors. See Kalman H. Silvert, 'American Academic Ethics and Social Research Abroad: The Lesson of Project Camelot', in Horowitz (ed.), ibid., 80-106, at 85.
120. Quoted in 'Congressional Response to Project Camelot', op. cit. note 2, 133, footnote 18. Also see the critical response of Jorge Montes from the Chilean Chamber of Deputies, in 'A Communist Commentary on Camelot', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 232-36
121. Quoted in 'Congressional Response to Project Camelot', op. cit. note 2, 133, footnote 18. Also see the critical response of Jorge Montes from the Chilean Chamber of Deputies, in 'A Communist Commentary on Camelot', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 232-36
122. 64. All quoted in William Giandoni (Latin American Editor of Copley News Service), 'Hemisphere Report: Communists Assail "Operation Camelot"', p. 3, Box 43, Folder 1, Fred Harris Papers [hereafter, Harris Papers], Carl Albert Center, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.
123. Silvert, 'American Academic Ethics', op. cit. note 62, 80. Yet it should be noted that the military continued to sponsor much social science, including studies along the lines of Project Camelot, often as classified research: see Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, 168-70.
124. Silvert, 'American Academic Ethics', op. cit. note 62, 80. Yet it should be noted that the military continued to sponsor much social science, including studies along the lines of Project Camelot, often as classified research: see Herman, Romance of American Psychology, op. cit. note 2, 168-70.
125. Fascell's remarks, and Final Report, in BSNS, 53, 5R.
126. Robert A. Nisbet, 'Project Camelot: An Autopsy', in Philip Rieff (ed.), On Intellectuals: Theoretical Studies/Case Studies (New York: Anchor Books, 1970), 307-39, at 313.
127. Ithiel de Sola Pool, 'The Necessity for Social Scientists Doing Research for Governments', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 267-80, quotes at 267, 268.
128. Fulbright quoted in John Walsh, 'Social Sciences: Cancellation of Camelot after Row in Chile Brings Research under Scrutiny', Science, Vol. 149 (10 September 1965), 1211-13; also see William J. Fulbright, 'America in an Age of Revolution', in Horowitz (ed), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 196-202.
129. Fulbright quoted in John Walsh, 'Social Sciences: Cancellation of Camelot after Row in Chile Brings Research under Scrutiny', Science, Vol. 149 (10 September 1965), 1211-13; also see William J. Fulbright, 'America in an Age of Revolution', in Horowitz (ed), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 196-202.
130. Seymour Deitchman, The Best-Laid Schemes: A Tale of Social Research and Bureaucracy (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1976), 169-89, at 169.
131. Anon., 'Angled Money', The Nation (22 August 1966), 140.
132. Sahlins, 'The Established Order', op. cit. note 57, 77-79.
133. Herbert Blumer, 'Threats from Agency-Determined Research: The Case of Camelot', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 153-74, at 161.
134. Nisbet, 'Project Camelot: An Autopsy', op. cit. note 67, at 338, 323. Nisbet, it should be emphasized, was no critic of scholarly collaboration with the military in general. Assuming that the behavioural sciences were, as many of their practitioners claimed, 'non-ideological' and 'objective', he saw nothing 'intrinsically wrong with their conclusions being used by, or given to, the Army' (316). But even this favourable predisposition toward military social science did not get in the way of his seeing that Project Camelot did not fit such a description.
135. Document Number 4 in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 62 (emphasis in original).
136. Theodore Vallance, 'Project Camelot: An Interim Postlude', in Horowitz (ed.), ibid., 203-10, at 204 (emphasis in original).
137. Herbert Kelman, A Time to Speak: On Human Values and Social Research (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1968), 5.
138. Irving Louis Horowitz, 'Social Science Objectivity and Value Neutrality: Historical Problems and Projections', in Horowitz, Professing Sociology: Studies in the Life Cycle of Social Science (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co., 1969), 30-45.
139. I.L. Horowitz, 'The Life and Death of Project Camelot', in Horowitz, Professing Sociology, ibid., 287-304, at 300.
140. Herbert C. Kelman, 'The Use of University Resources in Foreign Policy Research', p. 5 Box 42, Folder 18, Harris Papers.
141. Blumer, 'Threats', op. cit. note 73, 159.
142. Pio E. Uliassi, 'Government Sponsored Research in International and Foreign Affairs', in Irving Louis Horowitz (ed.), The Use and Abuse of Social Science: Behavioral Research and Policy Making (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 2nd edn, 1975), 287-320, at 313.
143. Noam Chomsky, 'The Responsibility of Intellectuals', in Chomsky, American Power and the New Mandarins (New York: Pantheon, 1969), 256-90, at 269.
144. Testimony of Thomas L. Hughes, Director of Intelligence and Research, State Department, in US Congress, Senate, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Government Research, Federal Support of International Social Science and Behavioral Research, Hearings [hereafter, FSISSBR], 89th Congress, 2nd session (1966), 3-4. Johnson's letter is reprinted in BSNS, 107.
145. Testimony of Thomas L. Hughes, Director of Intelligence and Research, State Department, in US Congress, Senate, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Government Research, Federal Support of International Social Science and Behavioral Research, Hearings [hereafter, FSISSBR], 89th Congress, 2nd session (1966), 3-4. Johnson's letter is reprinted in BSNS, 107.
146. Alfred de Grazia is quoted at length in Gideon Sjoberg, 'Project Camelot: Selected Reactions and Personal Reflections', in Sjoberg (ed.), Ethics, Politics, and Social Research (Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Co., 1967), 141-61, at 143-45.
147. Horowitz, 'Life & Death of Project Camelot', op. cit. note 79, 302.
148. Minutes, Second Meeting, Advisory Committee on Government Programs in the Behavioral Sciences (10 December 1965), Central Policy File Series, Folder: Behavioral Sciences 1965 Committee on Government Programs in Behavioral Sciences: Advisory Meetings: Minutes: December, National Academy of Sciences Archives [hereafter, NAS Archives], Washington, DC.
149. Memorandum for the Assistant Secretary of the Army (Research and Development), the Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research and Development), the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Research and Development), and the Director, Advanced Research Projects Agency (18 August 1965), Central Policy File Series, Folder: Behavioral Science 1965 Committee on Government Programs in Behavioral Science: Advisory General, NAS Archives.
150. Irving Horowitz, 'Social Science and Public Policy: Implications of Modern Research', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 339-76, esp. 347-60.
151. Irving Louis Horowitz, 'Michigan State and the CIA: A Dilemma for Social Scientists', Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 22, No. 7 (September 1966), 26-29; Warren Hinckley, 'The University on the Make', Ramparts, Vol. 4 (April 1966), 11-22.
152. Irving Louis Horowitz, 'Michigan State and the CIA: A Dilemma for Social Scientists', Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 22, No. 7 (September 1966), 26-29; Warren Hinckley, 'The University on the Make', Ramparts, Vol. 4 (April 1966), 11-22.
153. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding (New York: Free Press, 1970); Henry J. Aaron, Politics and the Professors: The Great Society in Perspective (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1978).
154. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding (New York: Free Press, 1970); Henry J. Aaron, Politics and the Professors: The Great Society in Perspective (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1978).
155. Elizabeth T. Crawford and Gene M. Lyons, 'Foreign Area Research: A Background Statement', in Foreign Area Research: A Conference Report (January 1967), from the Advisory Committee on Government Programs in the Behavioral Sciences, Division of Behavioral Science, National Academy of Science-National Research Council, 4-12, at 5.
156. FSISSBR: Senator Harris discusses his concerns throughout the subcommittee's published hearings.
157. Noam Chomsky, 'Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship', in Chomsky, American Power & the New Mandarins, op. cit. note 83, 23-129.
158. BSNS, 6R.
159. FSISSBR.
160. Franz Boas, Letter to the Editor of The Nation (20 December 1919), reprinted in Simpson (ed.), Universities & Empire, op. cit. note 21, 1-2.
161. Stephen Boggs (for the Executive Board, AAA), Letter to the Editor of the New York Times (7 June 1966), reproduced in FSISSBR, 75.
162. Beals, Politics of Social Research, op. cit. note 1, 96-97, and other documents regarding these concerns of anthropologists in Beals' Appendix B.
163. Fred R. Harris, 'National Social Science Foundation: Proposed Congressional Mandate for the Social Sciences', American Psychologist, Vol. 22 (1967), 904-10; Harris, 'The Case for a National Social Science Foundation', Science, Vol. 157 (4 August 1967), 507-09.
164. Fred R. Harris, 'National Social Science Foundation: Proposed Congressional Mandate for the Social Sciences', American Psychologist, Vol. 22 (1967), 904-10; Harris, 'The Case for a National Social Science Foundation', Science, Vol. 157 (4 August 1967), 507-09.
165. Robert Arnove (ed.), Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism: The Foundations at Home and Abroad (Boston, MA: G.K. Hall, 1980). In the 1980s, British sociologist Martin Bulmer and Canadian sociologist Donald Fisher carried on an extended argument about the critical case of the Rockefeller Foundation's influence on American social science. See the commentary with relevant references to their works by Salma Ahmad, 'American Foundations and the Development of the Social Sciences Between the Wars: Comment on the Debate between Martin Bulmer and Donald Fisher', Sociology, Vol. 25 (1991), 511-20. For a more recent discussion of patronage and American social science, see Platt, A History, op. cit. note 25, Chapter 5, 'Funding and Research Methods', 142-99.
166. Robert Arnove (ed.), Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism: The Foundations at Home and Abroad (Boston, MA: G.K. Hall, 1980). In the 1980s, British sociologist Martin Bulmer and Canadian sociologist Donald Fisher carried on an extended argument about the critical case of the Rockefeller Foundation's influence on American social science. See the commentary with relevant references to their works by Salma Ahmad, 'American Foundations and the Development of the Social Sciences Between the Wars: Comment on the Debate between Martin Bulmer and Donald Fisher', Sociology, Vol. 25 (1991), 511-20. For a more recent discussion of patronage and American social science, see Platt, A History, op. cit. note 25, Chapter 5, 'Funding and Research Methods', 142-99.
167. Robert Arnove (ed.), Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism: The Foundations at Home and Abroad (Boston, MA: G.K. Hall, 1980). In the 1980s, British sociologist Martin Bulmer and Canadian sociologist Donald Fisher carried on an extended argument about the critical case of the Rockefeller Foundation's influence on American social science. See the commentary with relevant references to their works by Salma Ahmad, 'American Foundations and the Development of the Social Sciences Between the Wars: Comment on the Debate between Martin Bulmer and Donald Fisher', Sociology, Vol. 25 (1991), 511-20. For a more recent discussion of patronage and American social science, see Platt, A History, op. cit. note 25, Chapter 5, 'Funding and Research Methods', 142-99.
168. Michael Useem, 'Government Influence on the Social Science Paradigm', Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 17 (1976), 146-61.
169. See, for example: Bruce T. Moran (ed.), Patronage and Institutions: Science, Technology, and Medicine at the European Court, 1500-1750 (Woodbridge, Suffolk & Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1991); Jacob (ed.), Politics of Western Science, op. cit. note 32; Mendelsohn, Smith & Weingart (eds), Science, Technology & the Military, op. cit. note 8.
170. See, for example: Bruce T. Moran (ed.), Patronage and Institutions: Science, Technology, and Medicine at the European Court, 1500-1750 (Woodbridge, Suffolk & Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1991); Jacob (ed.), Politics of Western Science, op. cit. note 32; Mendelsohn, Smith & Weingart (eds), Science, Technology & the Military, op. cit. note 8.
171. See, for example: Bruce T. Moran (ed.), Patronage and Institutions: Science, Technology, and Medicine at the European Court, 1500-1750 (Woodbridge, Suffolk & Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1991); Jacob (ed.), Politics of Western Science, op. cit. note 32; Mendelsohn, Smith & Weingart (eds), Science, Technology & the Military, op. cit. note 8.
172. Gendzier, Managing Political Change, op. cit. note 21; Robert A. Packenham, Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973).
173. Gendzier, Managing Political Change, op. cit. note 21; Robert A. Packenham, Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973).
174. Gendzier, Managing Political Change, op. cit. note 21, 9.
175. Sahlins, 'The Established Order', op. cit. note 57, 78.
176. Horowitz, 'Life & Death', op. cit. note 79, 304.
177. Robert Boguslaw, 'Ethics and the Social Scientist', in Horowitz (ed.), Rise & Fall of Project Camelot, op. cit. note 2, 107-27, at 118.
178. Herbert Kelman, 'The Social Consequences of Social Research', in Kelman, A Time to Speak, op. cit. note 77, 34-57.
179. Lyons, Uneasy Partnership, op. cit. note 41, 169.
180. Beals, Politics of Social Research, op. cit. note 1, 4.
181. BSNS, 62.