Seeing beyond the state: The population control movement and the problem of sovereignty

Past and Present

Volumn 193, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 197-233

  Connelly, Matthew ^a  

^a Columbia University ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34347376000     PISSN: 00312746     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/pastj/gtl016     Document Type: Review

References (179)

1. NSC meeting, 3 Dec. 1958: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas, Ann Whitman File, NSC Series.
2. 'Composite Report of the President's Committee to Study the United States Military Assistance Program', 17 Aug. 1959: United States National Archives, College Park, Maryland (hereafter USNA), RG59, Central Files, 1967-9, Soc 13-3, box 3124.
3. NSC Meeting, 28 May 1959: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Ann Whitman File, NSC Series.
4. State Department circular, 2 Dec. 1959: USNA, RG59, Central Files, 1967-9, Soc 13-3, box 3124.
5. Phyllis Tilson Piotrow, World Population Crisis: The United States Response (New York, 1973), 36-40, 88;
6. Peter J. Donaldson, Nature Against Us: The United States and the World Population Crisis, 1965-1980 (Chapel Hill, 1990), 23;
7. Donald T. Critchlow, Intended Consequences: Birth Control, Abortion, and the Federal Government in Modern America (New York, 1999), 42-3, 245.
8. Deborah Dwork, War Is Good for Babies and Other Young Children: A History of the Infant and Child Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1918 (London, 1987), 9;
9. Michael S. Teitelbaum and Jay M. Winter, The Fear of Population Decline (Orlando, 1985), 18-23.
10. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), 63-70;
11. Leo Lucassen, 'Eternal Vagrants? State Formation, Migration, and Travelling Groups in Western-Europe, 1350-1914', in Jan Lucassen and Leo Lucassen (eds.), Migration, Migration History, History: Old Paradigms and New Perspectives, 2nd edn (Berne, 1999), 243-50;
12. Frank Caestecker, 'The Changing Modalities of Regulation in International Migration within Continental Europe, 1870-1940', in Anita Böcker et al. (eds.), Regulation of Migration: International Experiences (Amsterdam, 1998), 74-6, 80-1.
13. Yankel Fijalkow, 'Hygiene, Population Sciences and Population Policy: A Totalitarian Menace?', Contemporary European Hist., xiii (1999);
14. Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, 1990).
15. The literature on eugenics is particularly voluminous. For a good introduction, see Frank Dikötter, 'Race Culture: Recent Perspectives on the History of Eugenics', Amer. Hist. Rev., ciii (1998).
16. Arjun Appadurai, 'Number in the Colonial Imagination', in Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer (eds.), Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia. (Philadelphia, 1993).
17. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, trans. Robert Hurley, 3 vols. (New York, 1978), i, 24-6;
18. Michel Foucault, 'Governmentality', in Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon and Peter Miller (eds.), The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago, 1991), 98-103.
19. Andrea Tone, Devices and Desires: A History of Contraceptives in America (New York, 2001), 35-40, 44-5;
20. Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (New York, 2000), 84-5.
21. Keith Fitzgerald, The Face of the Nation: Immigration, the State, and the National Identity (Stanford, 1996), 117-19;
22. Donna Gabaccia, 'The "Yellow Peril" and the "Chinese of Europe": Global Perspectives on Race and Labor, 1815-1930', in Lucassen and Lucassen (eds.), Migration, Migration History, History, 191-2;
23. Leo Lucassen, 'The Great War and the Origins of Migration Control in Western Europe and the United States (1880-1920)', in Böcker et al. (eds.), Regulation of Migration, 47-52.
24. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, 'Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, 1880-1920', Amer. Hist. Rev., xcv (1990), 1079-80;
25. Susan Pedersen, Family, Dependence, and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France, 1914-1945 (New York, 1993);
26. Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Maternal and Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca, 1993).
27. Robert Kuczynksi, 'Memorandum on Colonial Population and Vital Statistics', c.24 Sept. 1943, and record of first meeting of Colonial Demography Research Group, 24 Sept. 1943: National Archives, London, Public Record Office (hereafter PRO), CO 927/10; T. Smolski, 'L'État de la Population', c. Mar. 1937: Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence, Fonds Ministériels, Affaires Économiques (FM77), box 49.
28. Puerto Rico and Jamaica are the only exceptions: 'West India Royal Commission, 1938-39': PRO, CO 318/445/5; Annette B. Ramirez de Arellano and Conrad Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico (Chapel Hill, 1983), 57-60.
29. James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998), 89, 91; Fijalkow, 'Hygiene, Population Sciences and Population Policy', 465.
30. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 92.
31. Michael Geyer and Charles Bright, 'World History in a Global Age', Amer. Hist. Rev., c (1995);
32. Akira Iriye, 'Internationalizing International History', in Thomas Bender (ed.), Rethinking American History in a Global Age (Berkeley, 2002);
33. Patrick Manning, Navigating World History: Historians Create a Global Past (New York, 2003).
34. For more on the intellectual history of population control, see Matthew Connelly, 'To Inherit the Earth: Imagining World Population, from the Yellow Peril to the Population Bomb', Jl Global Hist., i (2006).
35. George Murdock considered 'population policy' to be a universal human behaviour on the basis of the ethnographic research catalogued in the Human Relations Area Files: George Murdock, 'The Common Denominator of Cultures', in Ralph Union (ed.), The Science of Man in the World Crisis (New York, 1945), 124.
36. Quoted in Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill, 1995), 7.
37. M. J. Dee, 'Chinese Immigration', North Amer. Rev., cxxvi (1878), 510, 513-14, 520-1, 523-6,
38. and see also Report of the Joint Special Committee to Investigate Chinese Immigration (Washington DC, 1877), p. v.
39. William F. Wu, The Yellow Peril: Chinese Americans in American Fiction, 1850-1940 (Hamden, Conn., 1982), 30-46;
40. Heinz Gollwitzer, Die gelbe Gefahr: Geschichte eines Schlagworts. Studien zum imperialistischen Denken (Göttingen, 1962), 29-30, 50 ff., 87-91, 131 ff., 175-83;
41. and see also Arthur Herman, The Idea of Decline in Western History (New York, 1997), 173-4.
42. Gollwitzer, Die gelbe Gefahr, 13-14;
43. Friedrich Ratzel, Die chinesische Auswanderung: ein Beitrag sur Cultur- und Handelsgeographie (Breslau, 1876);
44. Friedrich Ratzel, Der Lebensraum: eine biogeographische Studie (Tübingen, 1901). My thanks to Cyrus Schayegh for pointing out this connection.
45. Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley, 1971), 201-13, 268.
46. Aristide R. Zolberg, 'The Great Wall against China: Responses to the First Immigration Crisis, 1885-1925', in Lucassen and Lucassen (eds.), Migration, Migration History, History, 311-12;
47. Jack Wertheimer, Unwelcome Strangers: East European Jews in Imperial Germany (New York, 1987), 43-9.
48. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers;
49. Adam McKeown, Asian Migration and the Invention of Border Control, 1834-1929, forthcoming.
50. Adam McKeown, 'Conceptualizing Chinese Diasporas, 1842 to 1949', Jl Asian Studies, lviii (1999), 9-10.
51. Zolberg, 'Great Wall against China', 292.
52. Avner Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation (Oxford, 1989), 185-94;
53. Robert A. Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self-Governing Colonies, 1830-1910 (Ithaca, 1976), 188-9.
54. Francis Walker, Discussions in Economics and Statistics (New York, 1899), 420-2, 424-5, 438-9, 447.
55. Patrick Weil, 'Races at the Gate: Racial Distinctions in Immigration Policy. A Comparison between France and the United States', in Andreas Fahrmeir, Olivier Faron and Patrick Weil (eds.), Migration Control in the North Atlantic World: The Evolution of State Practices in Europe and the United States from the French Revolution to the Inter-War Period (New York, 2003), 273-5, 283-4.
56. Gabaccia, '"Yellow Peril" and the "Chinese of Europe'", 178.
57. Edward Alsworth Ross, Changing America: Studies in Contemporary Society (New York, 1912), 46-8;
58. and see also his The Old World in the New: The Significance of Past and Present Immigration to the American People (New York, 1914), preface.
59. Prescott Hall, 'Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics', Jl Heredity, x (1919), 126.
60. Testimony of 28 Apr. 1926 in Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, The Eugenical Aspects of Deportation (Washington DC, 1928), 46.
61. See, especially, recent comparative work stressing its international character: Mark B. Adams (ed.), The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia (New York, 1990);
62. Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen (eds.), Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland (East Lansing, 1996);
63. Nancy Leys Stepan, 'The Hour of Eugenics': Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca, 1991).
64. Problems in Eugenics: Papers Communicated to the First International Eugenics Congress, 2 vols. (London, 1912).
65. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 60-1.
66. Stefan Kühl, Die Internationale der Rassisten: Aufstieg und Niedergang der internationalen Bewegung für Eugenik und Rassenhygiene im 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt am Main, 1997), 13-15, 41, 73-4.
67. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 58-63.
68. Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, 1990), 3-6.
69. Stepan, 'Hour of Eugenics', 186-7.
70. Edward M. East, Mankind at the Crossroads (New York, 1923), 299;
71. David M. Kennedy, Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger (New Haven, 1970), 198.
72. Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color against White World-Supremacy (New York, 1920).
73. Harold Wright, Population (Cambridge, 1923), 123, 142, 176.
74. A. M. Carr-Saunders, Population (London, 1925), 82-3.
75. Harold Cox, The Problem of Population (New York, 1923), 85.
76. C. P. Blacker, Birth Control and the State: A Plea and a Forecast (London, 1926), 77-82.
77. E. A. Ross, Standing Room Only? (New York, 1927), 93-8, 341.
78. Charles Richer, La Sélection humaine (Paris, 1919), 166;
79. Georges Dequidt and Georges Forestier, 'Les Aspects sanitaires du problème de l'immigration en France', Revue d'hygiène, xlviii (1926), 1022;
80. and see also William H. Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France (New York, 1990), 236-7.
81. Taraknath Das, 'The Population Problem in India', in Margaret Sanger (ed.), The Sixth International Neo-Malthusian and Birth Control Conference, 4 vols. (New York, 1926), iv, 195-8;
82. Cemil Aydin, The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought (1882-1945), Columbia Univ. Press, forthcoming.
83. East, Mankind at the Crossroads, 111-12.
84. Raymond Pearl, 'Some Eugenic Aspects of the Problem of Population', in Charles B. Davenport et al. (eds.), Eugenics in Race and State (Baltimore, 1923), 214 (emphasis original).
85. Raymond Pearl, The Biology of Population Growth (New York, 1925), 171.
86. June Rose, Marie Stopes and the Sexual Revolution (London, 1992), 111, 144-5;
87. Helen M. Hopper, A New Woman of Japan: A Political Biography of Katô Shidzue (Boulder, 1996), 20-2, 56-8;
88. Doris H. Under, Crusader for Sex Education: Elise Ottesen-Jensen (1886-1973) in Scandinavia and on the International Scene (Lanham, 1996), 68-70, 105-11.
89. Kennedy, Birth Control in America, 84-7;
90. Angus McLaren, A History of Contraception: From Antiquity to the Present Day (Oxford, 1990), 216-18.
91. Sanger to Juliet Rublee, n.d., in The Margaret Sanger Papers: Collected Documents Series, ed. Esther Katz et al., microfilm (Bethesda, 1996), reel 2;
92. 'Brief Impressions of Japan', diary entries c. 10 Apr. 1922, in The Margaret Sanger Papers: Documents from the Sophia Smith Collection and College Archives, Smith College, ed. Esther Katz et al., microfilm (Bethesda, 1994), reel 70.
93. Louis Dublin, "The Excesses of Birth Control', in Sanger (ed.), Sixth International Neo-Malthusian and Birth Control Conference, ii, 180-1.
94. Journal excerpt, 3 Nov. 1914, in The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, i, The Woman Rebel, 1900-1928, ed. Esther Katz (Urbana, 2003), 98.
95. For examples, see the correspondence of John Burke of the National Catholic Welfare Conference (NCWC), who co-ordinated a diplomatic campaign in 1932 to withdraw League of Nations guidelines for maternal health that countenanced contraception: Catholic University of America Archives, Washington DC, NCWC, collection 10, box 172, folder 33. In the 1950s, the Geneva-based Centre d'information des organisations internationales catholiques worked to ensure that observant Catholics were represented in international organizations: Catholic University of America Archives, NCWC, collection 10, box 172, folder 32.
96. 'Casti Connubii: Encyclical of Pope Pius XI on Christian Marriage', 31 Dec. 1930: 〈http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/〉 (accessed 18 July 2006).
97. Sanger to Little, 16 Mar. 1927: Bentley Library, Ann Arbor, Michigan, C. C. Little Papers, box 6, folder 26; Tait to the Deputy Director, 5 Sept. 1927, and 'The World Population Conference: Preliminary Notice': both in the International Labour Organization archives, Geneva, B, Continuing Series, PO 1000/1/1.
98. Richard Symonds and Michael Carder, The United Nations and the Population Question (London, 1973), 12-14.
99. On Drummond, see James Barros, Office without Power: Secretary-General Sir Eric Drummond, 1919-1933 (Oxford, 1979), 25-6.
100. Henri Brenier, 'Le Congrès de la population mondiale à Genève et la conspiration néo-malthusienne', Le Correspondant (Paris), 10 Oct. 1927, 12-13, 16.
101. Thomas to Variez, 1 Aug. 1927, and Thomas to Legouis, 6 Aug. 1927: International Labour Organization archives, B, Continuing Series, PO 1000/1/1.
102. Albert Thomas, 'International Migration and its Control', in Margaret Sanger (ed.), Proceedings of the World Population Conference (London, 1927), 262-3 (emphasis added).
103. 'Fourth Meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Eugenics Society', 29 Nov. 1927: Bentley Library, C. C. Little Papers, box 7, folder 8; Stepan, 'Hour of Eugenics', 175-82.
104. Sanger (ed.), Proceedings of the World Population Conference, 85, 99;
105. see also E. M. East, 'Food and Population', ibid., 102.
106. Thoma, 'International Migration and its Control', 269;
107. Julian Huxley, 'Too Many People Seen as Real World Danger', New York Times, 16 Oct. 1927, 6.
108. Warren S. Thompson, Danger Spots in World Population (New York, 1929), 6 and passim;
109. H. L. Wilkinson, The World's Population Problems and a White Australia (London, 1930), 316-17;
110. Robert Kuczynski, 'The World's Future Population', in Corrado Gini et al., Population: Lectures on the Harris Foundation, 1929 (Chicago, 1930), 286-8.
111. Sanger (ed.), Proceedings of the World Population Conference, 360.
112. Victoria de Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922-1945 (Berkeley, 1992), 53-6;
113. David G. Horn, Social Bodies: Science, Reproduction, and Italian Modernity (Princeton, 1994), 59-60, 79-88.
114. Hermann Rauschning, The Voice of Destruction (New York, 1940), 136-8,
115. e siècle (La Tour d'Aigues, 1993), 52-3.
116. Yuehtsen Juliette Chung, Struggle for National Survival: Eugenics in Sino-Japanese Contexts, 1896-1945 (New York, 2002), 141-3;
117. John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986), 271-8.
118. 'International Conference on Birth Control in Asia: Paper Read by Dr. Kato', 25 Nov. 1933: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, Contemporary Medical Archives Centre, London, Eugenics Society Papers, D.14, box 26.
119. Hans Staudinger, 'Problems of Population', in Hans Speier and Alfred Kähler (eds.), War in Our Time (New York, 1939), 98.
120. John Boyd Orr, 'The Choice Ahead: One World or None', 14 Dec. 1946: FAO archives, Rome, RG 1.1, Series Dl, Notes and Comments by John Boyd Orr; Orr to Scrutton, 2 Sept. 1947: FAO archives, RG 1.1, Series A2, Lord John Orr Outgoing Letters.
121. 'Address by Margaret Sanger' to the thirtieth annual meeting of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 25 Oct. 1950: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, Contemporary Medical Archives Centre, Eugenics Society Papers, C.304, box 22.
122. Huxley memo to Trygve Lie, 30 Mar. 1948: UNESCO archives, Paris, inactive correspondence files, 312 A 06 (45) '54'.
123. Amy Staples, 'Constructing International Identity: The World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, and World Health Organization, 1945-1965' (Ohio State Univ. Ph.D. thesis, 1998), 211-29; Laves to Huxley, 25 Apr. 1948: UNESCO archives, inactive correspondence files, 312 A 06 (45) '54'.
124. World Health Organization, Official Records, xlii (Geneva, 1952), 204-6, 237-40;
125. Symonds and Carder, United Nations and the Population Question, 58-66.
126. Frank Notestein, 'Demography in the United States: A Partial Account of the Development of the Field', Population and Development Rev., viii (1982), 664-5.
127. Frank Notestein, 'Reminiscences: The Role of Foundations, of the Population Association of America, Princeton University and of the United Nations in Fostering American Interest in Population Problems', Milbank Memorial Fund Quart., xlix (1971), 78. What follows is an interpretation of what Notestein only implied in this article.
128. 'National Academy of Sciences: Conference on Population Problems', 20-22 June 1952: Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York (hereafter RAC), RG 5, John D. Rockefeller 3rd Papers, series 1, sub-series 5, box 85, folders 720-3.
129. Osborn application to Ford Foundation, 10 Feb. 1954: Ford Foundation Archives) New York (hereafter FFA), 1953 Grant Files, PA 54-20, Population Council.
130. On 'crypto-eugenics', see Blacker to Dorothy Brush, 13 Apr. 1956: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, Contemporary Medical Archives Centre, C. P. Blacker Papers, box 11, 'Blacker: Correspondence, Eugenics Society, IPPF'.
131. Frederick Osborn, 'Notes on Ad Hoc Meeting', 7 Mar. 1956: RAC, Population Council Papers, RG IV3B4.2, General File Series, box 1, folder 7.
132. The IPPF constitution is reprinted as Appendix I in International Planned Parenthood Federation, Fourth International Conference on Planned Parenthood: Report of the Proceedings, 17-22 August, 1953, Stockholm, Sweden (London, 1953).
133. Linder, Crusader for Sex Education, 191.
134. C. P. Blacker, 'Family Planning and Eugenic Movements', Eugenics Rev., xlvii (1956), 231;
135. Dudley Kirk, 'Summary of Ad Hoc Meeting', 17 Apr. 1956: RAC, Population Council Papers, RG IV3B4.2, General File Series, box 1, folder 7.
136. Meredith Minkler, 'Consultants or Colleagues: The Role of US Population Advisors in India', Population and Development Rev., iii (1977), 413.
137. 'Expenditures on Population', c. Oct. 1966: RAC, Population Council Papers, RG IV3B4.2, General File Series, box 36, folder 526.
138. Deverell to Canfield, 5 Apr. 1966: Columbia University Library, New York, Manuscript Collections, Harper & Row, series II, International Planned Parenthood, box 304, 'O'; Joseph A. Califano, Inside: A Public and Private Life (New York, 2004), 172-3.
139. For a study of how activists, scientists and senior political leaders collaborated in pushing a crash population control programme, with disastrous consequences, see Matthew Connelly, 'Coercive Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period', Population and Development Rev., xxxii (2006).
140. Piotrow, World Population Crisis, 43-8, 73-4, 88.
141. State Department circular, 20 Dec. 1966: Declassified Documents Reference System, CD-ROM 1996010100299, fiche 1996-25;
142. 'Excerpts - News Briefing', 16 July 1968: Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, Austin, Texas, LBJ Papers, Files of S. Douglass Cater, box 66.
143. Piotrow, World Population Crisis, 68-9, 72-5.
144. Rusk to US Embassy, Port of Spain, 28 Nov. 1967: USNA, RG59, Central Files, 1967-9, Soc 13-3, box 3122.
145. 'Tenth Meeting of the Management and Planning Committee', 9 Nov. 1967: IPPF Archives, London, 1.4.1.1.3, 'IPPF Management and Planning Committee'.
146. Dorothy L. Nortman and Ellen Hofstatter, Population and Family Planning Programs: A Compendium of Data through 1978, 10th edn (New York, 1980), 37.
147. Nehru minutes to file: National Archives of India, New Delhi, Ministry of External Affairs, American Division, file 67(4)-AMS/58.
148. Pascal Whelpton, 'Report on People and Institutions in India', Apr. 1954: RAC, Population Council Papers, RG IV3B4.2, General File Series, box 32, folder 470.
149. Stephen W. Binding, 'Learning by Doing: Testing the Supply-Side Hypothesis at USAID', paper provided to the author.
150. William Boynton, 'AID Contraceptive Supply Program by the Office of Population', 24 Nov. 1978, available online at 〈http://www.ravenholt. com〉 (accessed 20 July 2006); Reimert Ravenholt, personal communication with the author, 6 Apr. 2006.
151. Minutes of the Directors' Meeting', 9 Mar. 1976: RAC, Population Council Papers, RG IV3B4.2, Acc. II, George Zeidenstein, box 2, Officers' Meetings, July 1975 - June 1976; 'Officers' Meeting: Minutes', 13 July 1976: ibid., Acc. 85-41, box 1, Officers' Meetings, 7/76-3/77.
152. Ravenholt was helped by the fact that close family members worked for influential Democratic senators. He was finally demoted and then resigned, but only after a struggle lasting over two years.
153. Draper to Canfield, 11 Mar. 1968: Columbia University Library, Manuscript Collections, Harper & Row, series II, International Planned Parenthood, box 301, 'A'.
154. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, 1985), 194-6.
155. 'Additional Financing of the Expanded United Nations Population Program', 12 June 1967: United Nations Archives and Records Centre, New York (hereafter UNARC), S-0512-0038, Office of the Secretary General, Records of U Thant, 1961-71, DAG-1/5.2.1.6-4.
156. Draper to U Thant, 24 Apr. 1968: ibid.;
157. Juan de Onis, 'Major U.N. Effort to Curb Birth Rate Asked in Study', New York Times, 25 May 1969.
158. Chakravarthi Narasimhan, 'UNFPA', 13 Aug. 1969: UNARC, S-0512-0038, Office of the Secretary General, Records of U Thant, 1961-71, DAG-1/5.2.1.6-4; Buffum to Department of State, 8 Jan. 1970: USNA, RG59, Central Files, 1970-3, Soc 13-3, UN, box 3037.
159. John D. Rockefeller 3rd, 'Possible Candidates', 16 June 1969: UNARC, S-0512-0038, Office of the Secretary General, Records of U Thant, 1961-71, DAG-1/5.2.1.6-4; 'Record of Meeting', 14 Jan. 1970: PRO, OD 62/25.
160. D. F. Milton to Wilberforce, 20 Mar. 1970, and Wilberforce to D. F. Milton, 24 Mar. 1970: PRO, OD 62/25; Yost to State Department, 23 Jan. 1970: USNA, RG59, Central Files, 1970-3, Soc 13-3, UN, box 3037.
161. Alfred Sauvy, 'Projet de création de poste d'un Commissaire des Nations Unies à la Population', c. Oct. 1969: Centre des archives contemporaines, Fontainebleau, Fonds Alfred Sauvy, versement 20000115, article 7.
162. 'United Nations Fund for Population Activities Advisory Board Meeting', 25 May 1970: PRO, OD 62/27.
163. Rafael Salas, 'The Contribution of the United Nations', c. Apr. 1972: UNARC, S-0513-0233, Office of the Secretary General, Records of Kurt Waldheim, DAG-1/5.3.3.4.3.
164. Bernard Berelson, 'The Present State of Family Planning Programs', May 1970: PRO, OD 62/26.
165. Ibid.;
166. 'Beyond FP', attached to 'The Ford Foundation's Activities in Population', Aug. 1968: FFA, file 001405, and, for the published version, see Bernard Berelson, 'Beyond Family Planning', Studies in Family Planning, xxxviii (1969).
167. On involuntary method, see Southam to Saunders, 31 July 1969: FFA, International Division/Population Papers of Lyle Saunders, series I, box 1, folder 10.
168. Indian Family Planning: Is Failure Inevitable?', c. Nov. 1967: FFA, report 006866.
169. Berelson, 'Present State of Family Planning Programs'; William Draper, 'Aide-Memoire on Conversation with the Secretary-General', 4 Apr. 1972: UNARC, S-0513-0233, Office of the Secretary General, Records of Kurt Waldheim, DAG-1/5.3.3.4.3.
170. Salas to de Seynes, 30 Jan. 1972: UNARC, S-0290-0019-05, 'UNDP - UN Fund for Population Activities'.
171. De Seynes to Waldheim, 6 Apr. 1972: UNARC, S-0513-0233, Office of the Secretary General, Records of Kurt Waldheim, DAG-1/5.3.3.4.3.
172. J. L. Finkle and B. B. Crane, 'The Politics of Bucharest: Population, Development, and the New International Economic Order', Population and Development Rev., i (1975).
173. 'Report to the Secretary General of the United Nations from the Review Committee of the UNFPA', Oct. 1972: UNARC, S-0290-0017-05, 'UNDP -Report of the Michanek Committee'.
174. 'Third Population Conference: Summary and Projections', 12 May 1973: FFA, report 010334.
175. 'Draft Appraisal Report', 16 Mar. 1981: UNARC, Q400-R021-SU24, UNFPA Global and Interregional Project Files, box 9, KEN 1981-1982-1983; World Bank, Operations Evaluation Department, Population and the World Bank: Implications from Eight Case Studies (Washington DC, 1992), 54.
176. Susan Greenhalgh, 'Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy', Population and Development Rev., xxix (2003).
177. Marika Vicziany, 'Coercion in a Soft State: The Family Planning Program in Indiaj Part I: The Myth of Voluntarism', and 'Part II: The Sources of Coercion', Pacifie Affairs, Iv (1982-3).
178. See, for instance, the exchange between Lant H. Pritchett on the one hand, and John Bongaarts, James C. Knowles, John S. Akin and David K. Guilkey on the other, in 'The Impact of Population Policies', Population and Development Rev., xx (1994).
179. A more complete version of this argument will appear in Matthew Connelly, Unnatural Selection: The Population Control Movement and its Struggle to Remake Humanity, Harvard Univ. Press, forthcoming.