Sex Differences, Sexism, and Sex: The Social Psychology of Gender from Past to Present

Advances in Group Processes

Volumn 24, Issue , 2007, Pages 19-45

  Rudman, Laurie A ^a   Phelan, Julie E ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34249987181     PISSN: 08826145     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S0882-6145(07)24002-0     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Allport G.W. A handbook of social psychology (1935), Clark University Press, Worcester, MA
2. Allport G.W. The nature of prejudice (1954/1979), Perseus Books, Cambridge, MA
3. Atwater L.E., Carey J.A., and Waldman D.A. Gender and discipline in the workplace: Wait until your father gets home. Journal of Management 27 (2001) 537-561
4. Auster C.J., and Ohm S.C. Masculinity and femininity in contemporary American society: A reevaluation using the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Sex Roles 43 (2000) 499-528
5. Babcock L., and Laschever S. Women don't ask: Negotiation and the gender divide (2003), Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
6. Bakan D. The duality of existence (1966), Rand McNally, Chicago, IL
7. Barreto M., and Ellemers N. The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology 35 (2005) 633-642
8. Bartol K.M., and Butterfield D.A. Sex effects in evaluating leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology 61 (1976) 446-454
9. Basow S.A. Gender stereotypes: Traditions and alternatives. 2nd ed. (1986), Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA
10. Bem S.L. The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology 42 (1974) 155-162
11. Biernat M., and Fuegen K. Shifting standards and the evaluation of competence: Complexity in gender-based judgment and decision making. Journal of Social Issues 57 (2001) 707-724
12. Bolino M.C., and Turnley W.H. Counternormative impression management, likeability, and performance ratings: The use of intimidation in an organization setting. Journal of Organizational Behavior 23 (2003) 237-250
13. Bowles, H. R., Babcock, L., & Lai, L. (2005a). It depends who is asking and who you ask: Social incentives for sex differences in the propensity to initiate negotiation. KSG Working Paper No. RWP05-045.
14. Bowles H.R., Babcock L., and McGinn K.L. Constraints and triggers: Situational mechanics of gender in negotiation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005) 951-965
15. Boyce L.A., and Herd A.M. The relationship between gender role stereotypes and requisite military leadership characteristics. Sex Roles 49 (2003) 365-378
16. Branscombe N.R., Crosby P., and Weir J.A. Social inferences concerning male and female homeowners who use a gun to shoot an intruder. Aggressive Behavior 19 (1993) 113-124
17. Brett J.F., Atwater L.E., and Waldman D.A. Effective delivery of workplace discipline: Do women have to be more participatory than men?. AGroup and Organization Management 30 (2005) 487-513
18. Brewer M.B. A dual process model of impression formation. In: Skrull T.K., and Wyer Jr. R.S. (Eds). Advances in social cognition Vol. 1 (1988), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 1-36
19. Brewer M.B. The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991) 475-482
20. Burgess D., and Borgida E. Who women are, who women should be: Descriptive andprescriptive gender stereotyping in sex discrimination. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 5 (1999) 665-692
21. Butler D., and Geis F.L. Nonverbal affect responses to male and female leaders. Implications for leadership evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1990) 48-59
22. Buttner E.H., and McEnally M. The interactive effect of applicant gender, influence tactics, and type of job on hiring recommendations. Sex Roles 34 (1996) 581-592
23. Cahill B., and Adams E. An exploratory study of early childhood teachers' attitudes toward gender roles. Sex Roles 36 (1997) 517-529
24. Carli L.L. Gender, language, and influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59 (1990) 941-951
25. Carli L.L. Gender and social influence. Journal of Social Issues 57 (2001) 725-741
26. Carli L.L., LaFleur S.J., and Loeber C.C. Nonverbal behavior, gender, and influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (1995) 1030-1041
27. Carpenter, S., & Banaji, M. R. (1998, April). Implicit attitudes and behavior toward female leaders. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, IL.
28. Carranza, E. (2004). Is what's good for the goose derogated in the gander? Reactions to masculine women and feminine men. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Princeton University, Princeton, NJ.
29. Catalyst. (2002). 2002 Catalyst census of women corporate officers and top earners in the Fortune 500. Retrieved May 04, 2006, from http://www.catalyst.org/files/fact/COTE%20Factsheet%202002updated.pdf
30. Cejka M.A., and Eagly A.H. Gender-stereotypic images of occupations correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25 (1999) 413-423
31. Cherry F., and Deax K. Fear of success versus fear of gender-inappropriate behavior. Sex Roles 4 (1978) 97-101
32. Costrich N., Feinstein L., Kidder L., Maracek J., and Pascale L. When stereotypes hurt: Three studies of penalties for sex-role reversals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 11 (1975) 520-530
33. Crawford M. Gender, age, and the social evaluation of assertion. Behavior Modification 12 (1988) 549-564
34. Daubman K.A., Heatherington L., and Ahn A. Gender and the self-presentation of academic achievement. Sex Roles 27 (1992) 187-204
35. Deaux K., and Taylor J. Evaluation of male and female ability: Bias works two ways. Psychological Reports 32 (1973) 261-262
36. Derlega V.J., and Chaiken A.L. Norms affecting self-disclosure in men and women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 44 (1976) 376-380
37. Diekman A.B., and Eagly A.H. Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (2000) 1171-1188
38. Dodge K.A., Gilroy F.D., and Fenzel L.M. Requisite management characteristics revisited: Two decades later. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 10 (1995) 253-264
39. Dovidio J.F., Glick P., and Rudman L.A. On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport (2005), Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA
40. Eagly A.H. Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation (1987), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ
41. Eagly A.H., Johannesen-Schmidt M.C., and van Engen M.L. Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003) 569-591
42. Eagly A.H., and Karau S.J. Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review 109 (2002) 573-598
43. Eagly A.H., Karau S.J., and Makhijani M.G. Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 111 (1995) 3-22
44. Eagly A.H., Makhijani M.G., and Klonsky B.G. Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 111 (1992) 3-22
45. Eagly A.H., and Mladinic A. Gender stereotypes and attitudes toward women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 (1989) 543-558
46. Eagly A.H., Mladinic A., and Otto S. Cognitive and affective bases of attitudes toward social groups and social policies. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30 (1994) 113-137
47. Fiske S.T., Bersoff D.N., Borgida E., Deaux K., and Heilman M.E. Social science research on trial: Use of sex stereotyping research in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins. American Psychology 46 (1991) 1049-1060
48. Fiske S.T., and Neuberg S.L. A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influence of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In: Zanna M. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology Vol. 23 (1990), Academic Press, New York 1-74
49. Fiske S.T., and Stevens L.E. What's so special about sex? Gender stereotyping and discrimination. In: Oskamp S., and Costanzo M. (Eds). Gender issues in contemporary society (1993), Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, CA 173-196
50. Gerhart B., and Rynes S. Determinants and consequences of salary negotiations by male and female MBA graduates. Journal of Applied Psychology 76 (1991) 256-262
51. Gill M.J. When information does not deter stereotyping: Prescriptive stereotyping can foster bias under conditions that deter descriptive stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40 (2004) 619-632
52. Glick P., Diebold J., Bailey-Werner B., and Zhu L. The two faces of Adam: Ambivalent sexism and polarized attitudes toward women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (1997) 1323-1334
53. Glick P., and Fiske S.T. The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996) 491-512
54. Glick P., and Fiske S.T. Ambivalent sexism. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology Vol. 33 (2001), Academic Press, Thousand Oaks, CA 115-188
55. Glick P., Fiske S.T., Mladinic A., Saiz J.L., Abrams D., Masser B., et al. Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000) 763-775
56. Glick P., Lameiras M., Fiske S.T., Eckes T., Masser B., Volpato C., et al. Bad but bold: Ambivalent attitudes toward men predict gender inequality in 16 nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004) 713-728
57. Glick P., Wilk K., and Perreault M. Images of occupations: Components of gender and status in occupational stereotypes. Sex Roles 32 (1995) 564-582
58. Glick P., Zion C., and Nelson C. What mediates sex discrimination in hiring decisions?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (1988) 178-186
59. Gould R.J., and Slone C.G. The "feminine modesty" effect: A self-presentational interpretation of sex differences in causal attribution. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 8 (1982) 477-485
60. Greenwald A.G., Banaji M.R., Rudman L.A., Farnham S.D., Nosek B.A., and Mellott D.S. A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review 109 (2002) 3-25
61. Gutek B.A. Sex and the workplace (1985), Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA
62. Gutek B.A., and Morasch B. Sex-ratios, sex-role spillover, and sexual harassment of women at work. Journal of Social Issues 38 (1982) 55-74
63. Harris A.C. Ethnicity as a determinant of sex role identity: A replication study of item selection for the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Sex Roles 31 (1994) 241-273
64. Heatherington L., Daubman K.A., Bates C., Ahn A., Brown H., and Preston C. Two investigations of "female modesty" in achievement situations. Sex Roles 29 (1993) 739-754
65. Heilman M.E. Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. Research in Organizational Behavior 5 (1983) 269-298
66. Heilman M.E. Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues 57 (2001) 657-674
67. Heilman M.E., Block C.J., and Martell R.F. Sex stereotypes: Do they influence perceptions of managers?. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 10 (1995) 237-252
68. Heilman M.E., and Chen J.J. Same behavior, different consequences: Reactions to men's and women's altruistic citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2005) 431-441
69. Heilman M.E., and Haynes M.C. No credit where credit is due: Attributional rationalization of women's success in male-female teams. Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2005) 905-916
70. Heilman, M. E., & Okimoto, T. G. (in press). Averting penalties for women's success: Rectifying the perceived communality deficiency. Journal of Applied Psychology.
71. Heilman M.E., Wallen A.S., Fuchs D., and Tamkins M.M. Penalties for success: Reactions to women who succeed at male gender-typed tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology 89 (2004) 416-427
72. Hillier L., and Foddy M. The role of observer attitudes in judgments of blame in cases of wife assault. Sex Roles 29 (1993) 629-644
73. Holt C.L., and Ellis J.B. Assessing the current validity of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Sex Roles 39 (1998) 929-941
74. Huddy L., and Terkildsen N. The consequences of gender stereotypes for women candidates at different levels and types of office. Political Research Quarterly 46 (1993) 503-525
75. Jackman M.R. The velvet glove: Paternalism and conflict in gender, class, and race relations (1994), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA
76. Janoff-Bulman R., and Wade M.B. The dilemma of self-advocacy for women: Another case of blaming the victim?. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 15 (1996) 445-446
77. Katz D., and Braly K. Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 28 (1933) 280-290
78. Kilianski S.E., and Rudman L.A. Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 39 (1998) 333-352
79. Kite M.E., and Deaux K. Gender belief systems: Homosexuality and the implicit inversion theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly 11 (1987) 83-96
80. Koch S.C. Evaluative affect display toward male and female leaders of task-oriented groups. Small Group Research 36 (2005) 678-703
81. Lips H.M. The gender pay gap: Concrete indicator of women's progress toward equality. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 3 (2003) 87-109
82. Lyness K.S., and Judiesch M.K. Are women more likely to be hired or promoted into management positions?. Journal of Vocational Behavior 54 (2003) 158-173
83. Martell R.F., Parker C., Emrich C.G., and Crawford M.S. Sex stereotyping in the executive suite: "Much ado about something". Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 13 (1998) 127-138
84. Martin C.L. Attitudes and expectations about children with nontraditional and traditional gender roles. Sex Roles 22 (1990) 151-165
85. Maume D.J. Glass ceilings and glass escalators: Occupational segregation and race and sex differences in managerial promotions. Work and Occupations 26 (1999) 483-509
86. McIlwee J.S., and Robinson J.G. Women in engineering: Gender, power, and workplace culture (1992), State University of New York Press, Albany, NY
87. Moss-Racusin, C., & Heilman, M. (2006). Failure to be feminine: Interpersonal penalties for failure behavior on sex-consistent domains. Paper presented at the 7th Annual Meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Palm Springs, CA, January 27.
88. Offermann L.R., and Gowing M.K. Organizations of the future: Changes and challenges. American Psychologist 45 (1990) 95-108
89. Olson J.E., and Frieze I.H. Income determinants for women in businesss. In: Stromberg A.H., Larwood L., and Gutek B.A. (Eds). Women and work: An annual review Vol. 2 (1987), Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, CA 173-206
90. Peters T. Restoring American competitiveness: Looking for new models of organizations. Academy of Management Executive 2 (1988) 103-109
91. Powers T.A., and Zuroff D.C. Interpersonal consequences of overt self-criticism: A comparison with neutral and self-enhancing presentations of self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988) 1054-1062
92. Prentice D.A., and Carranza E. What women and men should be, shouldn't be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly 26 (2002) 269-281
93. Richeson J.A., and Ambady N. Who's in charge? Effects of situational roles on automatic gender bias. Sex Roles 44 (2001) 493-512
94. Rosencrantz P., Vogel S., Bee H., Broverman I., and Broverman D. Sex-role stereotypes and self-concepts in college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 32 (1968) 287-295
95. Rosener J.B. Ways women lead. Harvard Business Review 68 (1990) 119-125
96. Rudman L.A. Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998) 629-645
97. Rudman L.A. Rejection of women? Beyond prejudice as antipathy. In: Dovidio J.F., Glick P., and Rudman L.A. (Eds). On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport (2005), Blackwell, Malden, MA 106-120
98. Rudman L.A., and Fairchild K. Reactions to counterstereotypic behavior: The role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 (2004) 157-176
99. Rudman L.A., and Glick P. Feminized management and backlash toward agentic women: The hidden costs to women of a kinder, gentler image of middle managers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 1004-1010
100. Rudman L.A., and Glick P. Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues 57 (2001) 732-762
101. Rudman L.A., and Heppen J.B. Implicit romantic fantasies and women's interest in personal power: A glass slipper effect?. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (2003) 1357-1370
102. Rudman L.A., and Kilianski S.E. Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25 (2000) 1315-1328
103. Sailer P., Yao E., and Rehula V. Income by gender and age from information returns. Statistics of Income Bulletin 21 (2002) 83-102
104. Sanchez D.T., Crocker J., and Boike K.R. Doing gender in the bedroom: Investing in gender norms and the sexual experience. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005) 1445-1455
105. Sandnabba N.K., and Ahlberg C. Parents' attitudes and expectations about children's cross-gender behavior. Sex Roles 40 (1999) 249-263
106. Schein V.E. The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology 57 (1973) 95-100
107. Scott R.L., and Tetreault L.A. Attitudes of rapists and other violent offenders toward women. Journal of Social Psychology 127 (1987) 375-380
108. Sinclair L., and Kunda Z. Motivated stereotyping of women: She's fine if she praised me but incompetent if she criticized me. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (2000) 1329-1342
109. Spence J.T. Thirty years of gender research: A personal chronicle. In: Swann W.B., Langlois J.H., and Gilbert L.A. (Eds). Sexism and stereotypes in modern society: The gender science of Janet Taylor Spence (1999), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 255-289
110. Spence J.T., and Buckner C.E. Instrumental and expressive traits, trait stereotypes, and sexist attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly 24 (2000) 44-62
111. Spence J.T., and Helmreich R. The Attitudes Toward Women Scale: An objective instrument to measure attitudes toward the rights and roles of women in contemporary society. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology 2 (1972) 66-67 (Ms. 153)
112. Spence J.T., and Helmreich R. Who likes competent women? Competence, sex role congruence of interests, and subjects' attitudes towards women as determinants of interpersonal attraction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2 (1972) 197-213
113. Stevens C.K., Bavetta A.G., and Gist M.E. Gender differences in the acquisition of salary negotiation skills: The role of goals, self-efficacy, and perceived control. Journal ofApplied Psychology 78 (1993) 723-735
114. Swim J.K., Aiken K.J., Hall W.S., and Hunter B.A. Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (1995) 199-214
115. Swim J.K., and Sanna L.J. He's skilled, she's lucky: A meta-analysis of observers' attributions for women's and men's successes and failures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22 (1996) 507-519
116. Tannen D. You just don't understand: Women and men in conversation (1990), Morrow, New York, NY
117. Tannen D. Talking from 9 to 5: Women and men in the workplace: Language, sex, and power (1994), Morrow, New York, NY
118. Tougas F., Brown R., Beaton A.M., and Joly S. Neosexism: Plus ça change, plus c'est pareil. Personality and Social Psychology 21 (1995) 842-849
119. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2006). Household data: Monthly household data (Table A-19: Employed persons by occupation, sex, and age). Retrieved May 04, 2006 from ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/suppl/empsit.cpseea19.txt
120. U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). Historical income tables- People. (Table P-38: Full-time, year-round workers [all races] by median earning and sex: 1960 to 2000). Retrieved May 04, 2006 from http://www.census.gov/hhes/income/histinc/p38.html
121. U.S. General Accounting Office. (2001, October). Women in management: Analysis of selected data from the current population survey (GAO-02-156). Retrieved May 04, 2006 from http://www.equality2020.org/women.pdf
122. Valian V. Why so slow? The advancement of women (1999), The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
123. Vescio T.K., Gervais S.J., Snyder M., and Hoover A. Power and the creation of patronizing environments: The stereotype-based behaviors of the powerful and their effects on female performance in masculine domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005) 658-672
124. Wade M.E. Women and salary negotiation: The costs of self-advocacy. Psychology of Women Quarterly 25 (2001) 65-76
125. Weidner G., and Griffitt W. Rape: A sexual stigma?. Journal of Personality 51 (1983) 152-166
126. White House Project. (2006). Snapshots of current political leadership. Retrieved May 04, 2006 from http://www.thewhitehouseproject.org/v2/researchandreports/snapshots.html
127. Wiley M.G., and Eskilson A. Speech style, gender stereotypes, and corporate success: What if women talk more like men?. Sex Roles 12 (1985) 993-1007
128. Williams J.E., and Best D.L. Measuring sex stereotypes: A multination study (1990), Sage, Newbury Park, CA
129. Zucker K.J., Bradley S.J., and Sanikhani M. Sex differences in referral rates of children with gender identity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 25 (1997) 217-227