Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Resistance and therapeutic options at the turn of the new millennium

Clinical Microbiology and Infection

Volumn 13, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 560-578

  Mesaros, N ^a   Nordmann, P ^b   Plesiat P ^c   Roussel Delvallez, M ^d   Van Eldere, J ^e   Glupczynski, Y ^f   Van Laethem, Y ^g   Jacobs, F ^h   Lebecque, P ⁱ   Malfroot, A ^j   Tulkens, P M ^a   Van Bambeke, F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITÉ CATHOLIQUE DE LOUVAIN   (Belgium)

^b BICÊTRE HOSPITAL   (France)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL JEAN MINJOZ   (France)

^d LILLE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (France)

^e UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^f UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF MONT GODINNE   (Belgium)

^g SAINT PIERRE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

^h ERASME HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

ⁱ CLINIQUES UNIVERSITAIRES SAINT LUC   (Belgium)

^j UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL BRUSSELS   (Belgium)

more..

Author keywords

Antibiotic therapy; Cystic fibrosis; Nosocomial infections; Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Resistance; Therapeutic options

Indexed keywords

AMIKACIN; AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AZITHROMYCIN; AZTREONAM; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CARBAPENEM; CEFEPIME; CEFTAZIDIME; CEFTOBIPROLE; CEPHALOSPORIN; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CIPROFLOXACIN; COLISTIN; DORIPENEM; GENTAMICIN; IMIPENEM; LEVOFLOXACIN; MEROPENEM; NETILMICIN; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; PENICILLIN G; PIPERACILLIN PLUS TAZOBACTAM; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFAMPICIN; SITAFLOXACIN; STREPTOCOCCUS VACCINE; TOBRAMYCIN; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; AREA UNDER THE CURVE; BACTEREMIA; BACTERIAL METABOLISM; BACTERIAL MUTATION; BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; BACTERIUM IDENTIFICATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; CYSTIC FIBROSIS; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG POTENTIATION; GRAM NEGATIVE INFECTION; GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIUM; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HUMAN; IMMUNIZATION; INFECTION CONTROL; LABORATORY TEST; LUNG INFECTION; MAXIMUM PLASMA CONCENTRATION; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; MONOTHERAPY; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PHARMACODYNAMICS; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA; REVIEW; TREATMENT DURATION; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VACCINE PRODUCTION;

POSIBACTERIA; PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA;

EID: 34248348757     PISSN: 1198743X     EISSN: 14690691     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01681.x     Document Type: Review

References (198)

1. Pier G, Ramphal R. Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In: Mandell G, Bennett J, Dolin R, eds, Principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, 2005; 2587-2615.
2. Stover CK, Pham XQ, Erwin AL et al. Complete genome sequence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA01, an opportunistic pathogen. Nature 2000; 406: 959-964.
3. Kipnis E, Sawa T, Wiener-Kronish J. Targeting mechanisms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa pathogenesis. Med Mal Infect 2006; 36: 78-91.
4. Woods DE. Comparative genomic analysis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence. Trends Microbiol 2004; 12: 437-439.
5. Normark BH, Normark S. Evolution and spread of antibiotic resistance. J Intern Med 2002; 252: 91-106.
6. Morrison AJ, Wenzel RP. Epidemiology of infections due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Rev Infect Dis 1984; 6 (suppl 3): S627-S642.
7. Maschmeyer G, Braveny I. Review of the incidence and prognosis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in cancer patients in the 1990s. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 19: 915-925.
8. Crouch Brewer S, Wunderink RG, Jones CB, Leeper KV. Ventilator-associated pneumonia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Chest 1996; 109: 1019-1029.
9. Rello J, Rue M, Jubert P et al. Survival in patients with nosocomial pneumonia: Impact of the severity of illness and the etiologic agent. Crit Care Med 1997; 25: 1862-1867.
10. Crnich CJ, Safdar N, Maki DG. The role of the intensive care unit environment in the pathogenesis and prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Respir Care 2005; 50: 813-836.
11. Ferrara AM. Potentially multidrug-resistant non-fermentative Gram-negative pathogens causing nosocomial pneumonia. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006; 27: 183-195.
12. Shaw MJ. Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2005; 11: 236-241.
13. Chastre J, Fagon JY. Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165: 867-903.
14. Ratjen F. Diagnosing and managing infection in CF. Paediatr Respir Rev 2006; 7 (suppl 1): S151-S153.
15. Nicotra MB, Rivera M, Dale AM, Shepherd R, Carter R. Clinical, pathophysiologic, and microbiologic characterization of bronchiectasis in an aging cohort. Chest 1995; 108: 955-961.
16. Krcmery V, Koprnova J, Gogova M, Grey E, Korcova J. Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteraemia in cancer patients. J Infect 2006; 52: 461-463.
17. Marra AR, Bar K, Bearman GM, Wenzel RP, Edmond MB. Systemic inflammatory response syndrome in nosocomial bloodstream infections with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus species: Comparison of elderly and nonelderly patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 2006; 54: 804-808.
18. Sligl W, Taylor G, Brindley PG. Five years of nosocomial Gram-negative bacteremia in a general intensive care unit: Epidemiology, antimicrobial susceptibility patterns, and outcomes. Int J Infect Dis 2006; 10: 320-325.
19. Milstone AM, Ruff AJ, Yeamans C, Higman MA. Pseudomonas aeruginosa pre-septal cellulitis and bacteremia in a pediatric oncology patient. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2005; 45: 353.
20. Dubois V, Arpin C, Noury P, Andre C, Coulange L, Quentin C. Prolonged outbreak of infection due to TEM-21-producing strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and enterobacteria in a nursing home. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 4129-4138.
21. Obritsch MD, Fish DN, MacLaren R, Jung R. Nosocomial infections due to multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Epidemiology and treatment options. Pharmacotherapy 2005; 25: 1353-1364.
22. Hamasuna R, Betsunoh H, Sueyoshi T et al. Bacteria of preoperative urinary tract infections contaminate the surgical fields and develop surgical site infections in urological operations. Int J Urol 2004; 11: 941-947.
23. Wang MC, Liu CY, Shiao AS, Wang T. Ear problems in swimmers. J Chin Med Assoc 2005; 68: 347-352.
24. Rubin J, Yu VL. Malignant external otitis: Insights into pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and therapy. Am J Med 1988; 85: 391-398.
25. Stern GA. Pseudomonas keratitis and contact lens wear: The lens/eye is at fault. Cornea 1990; 9 (suppl 1): S36-S38.
26. Wise BL, Mathis JL, Jawetz E. Infections of the central nervous system due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Neurosurg 1969; 31: 432-434.
27. Vrochides D, Feng WC, Singh AK. Mycotic ascending aortic pseudoaneurysm secondary to pseudomonas mediastinitis at the aortic cannulation site. Tex Heart Inst J 2003; 30: 322-324.
28. Schmitt TM, Finck SJ, Brumble LM, Lane GE. Pseudomonas aeruginosa pseudoaneurysm of the ascending aorta after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Tex Heart Inst J 2003; 30: 137-139.
29. Marshall JC, Christou NV, Meakins JL. The gastrointestinal tract. The 'undrained abscess' of multiple organ failure. Ann Surg 1993; 218: 111-119.
30. Hancock RE. Resistance mechanisms in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other nonfermentative gram-negative bacteria. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27 (suppl 1): S93-S99.
31. Vaisvila R, Morgan RD, Posfai J, Raleigh EA. Discovery and distribution of super-integrons among pseudomonads. Mol Microbiol 2001; 42: 587-601.
32. Giamarellou H. Prescribing guidelines for severe Pseudomonas infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 49: 229-233.
33. McGowan JE. Resistance in nonfermenting gram-negative bacteria: multidrug resistance to the maximum. Am J Med 2006; 119: S29-S36.
34. Thomson JM, Bonomo RA. The threat of antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria: Beta-lactams in peril! Curr Opin Microbiol 2005; 8: 518-524.
35. Dalhoff A, Janjic N, Echols R. Redefining penems. Biochem Pharmacol 2006; 71: 1085-1095.
36. Poole K. Efflux-mediated multiresistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004; 10: 12-26.
37. Poole K, Srikumar R. Multidrug efflux in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: components, mechanisms and clinical significance. Curr Top Med Chem 2001; 1: 59-71.
38. Kohler T, Michea-Hamzehpour M, Plesiat P, Kahr AL, Pechere JC. Differential selection of multidrug efflux systems by quinolones in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 2540-2543.
39. Kohler T, Michea-Hamzehpour M, Henze U, Gotoh N, Curty LK, Pechere JC. Characterization of MexE-MexF-OprN, a positively regulated multidrug efflux system of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Mol Microbiol 1997; 23: 345-354.
40. Lomovskaya O, Lee A, Hoshino K et al. Use of a genetic approach to evaluate the consequences of inhibition of efflux pumps in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43: 1340-1346.
41. Hocquet D, Nordmann P, El Garch F, Cabanne L, Plesiat P. Involvement of the MexXY-OprM efflux system in emergence of cefepime resistance in clinical strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 1347-1351.
42. Quale J, Bratu S, Gupta J, Landman D. Interplay of efflux system, ampC, and oprD expression in carbapenem resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 1633-1641.
43. Le Thomas I, Couetdic G, Clermont O, Brahimi N, Plesiat P, Bingen E. In vivo selection of a target/efflux double mutant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by ciprofloxacin therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001; 48: 553-555.
44. Nakajima A, Sugimoto Y, Yoneyama H, Nakae T. High-level fluoroquinolone resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa due to interplay of the MexAB-OprM efflux pump and the DNA gyrase mutation. Microbiol Immunol 2002; 46: 391-395.
45. Niga T, Ito H, Oyamada Y et al. Cooperation between alteration of DNA gyrase genes and over-expression of MexB and MexX confers high-level fluoroquinolone resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains isolated from a patient who received a liver transplant followed by treatment with fluoroquinolones. Microbiol Immunol 2005; 49: 443-446.
46. Weldhagen GF, Poirel L, Nordmann P. Ambler class A extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Novel developments and clinical impact. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 2385-2392.
47. Poirel L, Brinas L, Verlinde A, Ide L, Nordmann P. BEL-1, a novel clavulanic acid-inhibited extended-spectrum beta-lactamase, and the class 1 integron In120 in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 3743-3748.
48. Wang CY, Jerng JS, Cheng KY et al. Pandrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa among hospitalised patients: Clinical features, risk-factors and outcomes. Clin Microbiol Infect 2006; 12: 63-68.
49. Chayakulkeeree M, Junsriwong P, Keerasuntonpong A, Tribuddharat C, Thamlikitkul V. Epidemiology of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing gram-negative bacilli at Siriraj Hospital, Thailand, 2003. SE Asian J Trop Med Pub Hlth 2005; 36: 1503-1509.
50. Masterton RG, Turner PJ. Trends in antimicrobial susceptibility in UK centres: The MYSTIC Programme 1997-2002). Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006; 27: 69-72.
51. Walsh TR, Toleman MA, Poirel L, Nordmann P. Metallo-beta-lactamases: The quiet before the storm? Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18: 306-325.
52. Aubron C, Poirel L, Fortineau N, Nicolas P, Collet L, Nordmann P. Nosocomial spread of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates expressing the metallo-beta-lactamase VIM-2 in a hematology unit of a French hospital. Microb Drug Resist 2005; 11: 254-259.
53. Cardoso O, Leitao R, Figueiredo A, Sousa JC, Duarte A, Peixe LV. Metallo-beta-lactamase VIM-2 in clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from Portugal. Microb Drug Resist 2002; 8: 93-97.
54. Giakkoupi P, Petrikkos G, Tzouvelekis LS, Tsonas S, Legakis NJ, Vatopoulos AC. Spread of integron-associated VIM-type metallo-beta-lactamase genes among imipenem-nonsusceptible Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains in Greek hospitals. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 822-825.
55. Walsh TR. The emergence and implications of metallo-beta-lactamases in Gram-negative bacteria. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11 (suppl 6): 2-9.
56. Nordmann P, Poirel L. Emerging carbapenemases in Gram-negative aerobes. Clin Microbiol Infect 2002; 8: 321-331.
57. Poole K. Aminoglycoside resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 479-487.
58. Mingeot-Leclercq MP, Glupczynski Y, Tulkens PM. Aminoglycosides: activity and resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43: 727-737.
59. Hooper DC. Mechanisms of action and resistance of older and newer fluoroquinolones. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31 (suppl 2): S24-S28.
60. Van Bambeke F, Michot JM, Van Eldere J, Tulkens PM. Quinolones in 2005: an update. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11: 256-280.
61. Mouneimne H, Robert J, Jarlier V, Cambau E. Type II topoisomerase mutations in ciprofloxacin-resistant strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43: 62-66.
62. Yokoyama K, Doi Y, Yamane K et al. Acquisition of 16S rRNA methylase gene in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Lancet 2003; 362: 1888-1893.
63. Thompson J, Skeggs PA, Cundliffe E. Methylation of 16S ribosomal RNA and resistance to the aminoglycoside antibiotics gentamicin and kanamycin determined by DNA from the gentamicin-producer, Micromonospora purpurea. Mol Gen Genet 1985; 201: 168-173.
64. Liou GF, Yoshizawa S, Courvalin P, Galimand M. Aminoglycoside resistance by ArmA-mediated ribosomal 16S methylation in human bacterial pathogens. J Mol Biol 2006; 359: 358-364.
65. Rossolini GM, Mantengoli E. Treatment and control of severe infections caused by multiresistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11 (suppl 4): 17-32.
66. Navon-Venezia S, Ben Ami R, Carmeli Y. Update on Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii infections in the healthcare setting. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2005; 18: 306-313.
67. Aloush V, Navon-Venezia S, Seigman-Igra Y, Cabili S, Carmeli Y. Multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Risk factors and clinical impact. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 43-48.
68. Poirel L, Weldhagen GF, De Champs C, Nordmann P. A nosocomial outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates expressing the extended-spectrum beta-lactamase GES-2 in South Africa. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 49: 561-565.
69. Gruson D, Hilbert G, Vargas F et al. Strategy of antibiotic rotation: long-term effect on incidence and susceptibilities of Gram-negative bacilli responsible for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2003; 31: 1908-1914.
70. Regal RE, DePestel DD, Van den Bussche HL. The effect of an antimicrobial restriction program on Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistance to beta-lactams in a large teaching hospital. Pharmacotherapy 2003; 23: 618-624.
71. Falagas ME, Kopterides P. Risk factors for the isolation of multi-drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a systematic review of the literature. J Hosp Infect 2006; 64: 7-15.
72. Burgess DS. Use of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics to optimize antimicrobial treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40 (suppl 2): S99-S104.
73. Acharya A, Paterson D. Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In: Yu V, Weber R, Raoult D, eds, Antimicrobial therapy and vaccines. New York: Apple Trees Productions, LLC, 2002; 549-592.
74. Dominguez-Bello MG, Reyes N, Teppa-Garran A, Romero R. Interference of Pseudomonas strains in the identification of Helicobacter pylori. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38: 937.
75. Blanc DS. The use of molecular typing for epidemiological surveillance and investigation of endemic nosocomial infections. Infect Genet Evol 2004; 4: 193-197.
76. Speert DP. Molecular epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Front Biosci 2002; 7: E354-e361.
77. Grothues D, von der Koopmann UHH, Tummler B. Genome fingerprinting of Pseudomonas aeruginosa indicates colonization of cystic fibrosis siblings with closely related strains. J Clin Microbiol 1988; 26: 1973-1977.
78. Struelens MJ, Schwam V, Deplano A, Baran D. Genome macrorestriction analysis of diversity and variability of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains infecting cystic fibrosis patients. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31: 2320-2326.
79. Wolz C, Kiosz G, Ogle JW et al. Pseudomonas aeruginosa cross-colonization and persistence in patients with cystic fibrosis. Use of a DNA probe. Epidemiol Infect 1989; 102: 205-214.
80. Speert DP, Campbell ME, Henry DA et al. Epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis in British Columbia, Canada. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166: 988-993.
81. Sazakli E, Leotsinidis M, Vantarakis A, Papapetropoulou M. Comparative typing of Pseudomonas species isolated from the aquatic environment in Greece by SDS-PAGE and RAPD analysis. J Appl Microbiol 2005; 99: 1191-1203.
82. Vernez I, Hauser P, Bernasconi MV, Blanc DS. Population genetic analysis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa using multilocus sequence typing. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2005; 43: 29-35.
83. Curran B, Jonas D, Grundmann H, Pitt T, Dowson CG. Development of a multilocus sequence typing scheme for the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 5644-5649.
84. Kersulyte D, Struelens MJ, Deplano A, Berg DE. Comparison of arbitrarily primed PCR and macrorestriction pulsed-field gel electrophoresis typing of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains from cystic fibrosis patients. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 2216-2219.
85. Kodaka H, Iwata M, Yumoto S, Kashitani F. Evaluation of a new agar medium containing cetrimide, kanamycin and nalidixic acid for isolation and enhancement of pigment production of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in clinical samples. J Basic Microbiol 2003; 43: 407-413.
86. Pfaller MA, Segreti J. Overview of the epidemiological profile and laboratory detection of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42 (suppl 4): S153-S163.
87. Sader HS, Fritsche TR, Jones RN. Accuracy of three automated systems (MicroScan WalkAway, VITEK, and VITEK 2) for susceptibility testing of Pseudomonas aeruginosa against five broad-spectrum beta-lactam agents. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 1101-1104.
88. Joyanes P, del Carmen CM, Martinez-Martinez L, Perea EJ. Evaluation of the VITEK 2 system for the identification and susceptibility testing of three species of nonfermenting gram-negative rods frequently isolated from clinical samples. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 3247-3253.
89. Saegeman V, Huynen P, Colaert J, Melin P, Verhaegen J. Susceptibility testing of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by the Vitek 2 system: A comparison with Etest results. Acta Clin Belg 2005; 60: 3-9.
90. Doern GV, Brueggemann AB, Perla R et al. Multicenter laboratory evaluation of the bioMerieux Vitek antimicrobial susceptibility testing system with 11 antimicrobial agents versus members of the family Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 2115-2119.
91. Vedel G. Simple method to determine β-lactam resistance phenotypes in Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the disc agar diffusion test. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 56: 657-664.
92. Dumas JL, Van Delden C, Perron K, Kohler T. Analysis of antibiotic resistance gene expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa by quantitative real-time-PCR. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2006; 254: 217-225.
93. Yan JJ, Hsueh PR, Lu JJ, Chang FY, Ko WC, Wu JJ. Characterization of acquired β-lactamases and their genetic support in multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates in Taiwan: The prevalence of unusual integrons. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 58: 530-536.
94. American Thoracic Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171: 388-416.
95. Hughes WT, Armstrong D, Bodey GP et al. 1997 guidelines for the use of antimicrobial agents in neutropenic patients with unexplained fever. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 551-573.
96. Eggimann P, Revelly JP. Should antibiotic combinations be used to treat ventilator-associated pneumonia? Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 27: 68-81.
97. Craven DE, Palladino R, McQuillen DP. Healthcare-associated pneumonia in adults: Management principles to improve outcomes. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2004; 18: 939-962.
98. Rello J, Diaz E, Rodriguez A. Advances in the management of pneumonia in the intensive care unit: Review of current thinking. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11 (suppl 5): 30-38.
99. Iregui M, Ward S, Sherman G, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 2002; 122: 262-268.
100. Carmeli Y, Troillet N, Eliopoulos GM, Samore MH. Emergence of antibiotic-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Comparison of risks associated with different antipseudomonal agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43: 1379-1382.
101. Carmeli Y, Troillet N, Karchmer AW, Samore MH. Health and economic outcomes of antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159: 1127-1132.
102. Pugin J, Auckenthaler R, Mili N, Janssens JP, Lew PD, Suter PM. Diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia by bacteriologic analysis of bronchoscopic and nonbronchoscopic 'blind' bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143: 1121-1129.
103. Singh N, Rogers P, Atwood CW, Wagener MM, Yu VL. Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit. A proposed solution for indiscriminate antibiotic prescription. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 505-511.
104. DeRyke CA, Lee SY, Kuti JL, Nicolau DP. Optimising dosing strategies of antibacterials utilising pharmacodynamic principles: Impact on the development of resistance. Drugs 2006; 66: 1-14.
105. Benko AS, Cappelletty DM, Kruse JA, Rybak MJ. Continuous infusion versus intermittent administration of ceftazidime in critically ill patients with suspected gram-negative infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 691-695.
106. Tam VH, Louie A, Lomaestro BM, Drusano GL. Integration of population pharmacokinetics, a pharmacodynamic target, and microbiologic surveillance data to generate a rational empiric dosing strategy for cefepime against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pharmacotherapy 2003; 23: 291-295.
107. Viaene E, Chanteux H, Servais H, Mingeot-Leclercq MP, Tulkens PM. Comparative stability studies of antipseudomonal beta-lactams for potential administration through portable elastomeric pumps (home therapy for cystic fibrosis patients) and motor-operated syringes (intensive care units). Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 2327-2332.
108. Fayed DF, Dahmash NS, al Zeer AH, Shibl AM, Huraib SO, Abu-Aisha H. Efficacy and safety of once-daily amikacin in combination with ceftazidime in critically ill adults with severe gram-negative infections. J Chemother 1996; 8: 457-464.
109. Barza M, Ioannidis JP, Cappelleri JC, Lau J. Single or multiple daily doses of aminoglycosides: A meta-analysis. BMJ 1996; 312: 338-345.
110. Mingeot-Leclercq MP, Tulkens PM. Aminoglycosides: Nephrotoxicity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43: 1003-1012.
111. Thomas JK, Forrest A, Bhavnani SM et al. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42: 521-527.
112. Hyatt JM, Schentag JJ. Pharmacodynamic modeling of risk factors for ciprofloxacin resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21: S9-S11.
113. Kiem S, Schentag JJ. Relationship of minimal inhibitory concentration and bactericidal activity to efficacy of antibiotics for treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 27: 51-67.
114. Mehta RM, Niederman MS. Nosocomial pneumonia in the intensive care unit: controversies and dilemmas. J Intens Care Med 2003; 18: 175-188.
115. Paul M, Benuri-Silbiger I, Soares-Weiser K, Leibovici L. Beta lactam monotherapy versus beta lactam-aminoglycoside combination therapy for sepsis in immunocompetent patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ 2004; 328: 668.
116. Cunha BA. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: Monotherapy is optimal if chosen wisely. Crit Care 2006; 10: 141.
117. Bodey GP, Jadeja L, Elting L. Pseudomonas bacteremia. Retrospective analysis of 410 episodes. Arch Intern Med 1985; 145: 1621-1629.
118. Chastre J, Wolff M, Fagon JY et al. Comparison of 8 vs 15 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: A randomized trial. JAMA 2003; 290: 2588-2598.
119. Li J, Nation RL, Turnidge JD et al. Colistin: The re-emerging antibiotic for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections. Lancet Infect Dis 2006; 6: 589-601.
120. Falagas ME, Kasiakou SK, Tsiodras S, Michalopoulos A. The use of intravenous and aerosolized polymyxins for the treatment of infections in critically ill patients: A review of the recent literature. Clin Med Res 2006; 4: 138-146.
121. Newton B. The properties and mode of action of polymyxins. Bacteriol Rev 1956; 20: 14-27.
122. Li J, Turnidge J, Milne R, Nation RL, Coulthard K. In vitro pharmacodynamic properties of colistin and colistin methanesulfonate against Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from patients with cystic fibrosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45: 781-785.
123. Gales AC, Reis AO, Jones RN. Contemporary assessment of antimicrobial susceptibility testing methods for polymyxin B and colistin: Review of available interpretative criteria and quality control guidelines. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 183-190.
124. Falagas ME, Kasiakou SK. Colistin: The revival of polymyxins for the management of multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacterial infections. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 1333-1341.
125. Falagas ME, Kasiakou SK. Toxicity of polymyxins: A systematic review of the evidence from old and recent studies. Crit Care 2006; 10: R27.
126. Michalopoulos AS, Tsiodras S, Rellos K, Mentzelopoulos S, Falagas ME. Colistin treatment in patients with ICU-acquired infections caused by multiresistant Gram-negative bacteria: The renaissance of an old antibiotic. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11: 115-121.
127. Micol JB, de Botton S, Guieze R et al. An 18-case outbreak of drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteriemia in hematology patients. Haematologica 2006; 91: 1134-1138.
128. Schina M, Spyridi E, Daoudakis M, Mertzanos E, Korfias S. Successful treatment of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa meningitis with intravenous and intrathecal colistin. Int J Infect Dis 2006; 10: 178-179.
129. Kwa AL, Loh C, Low JG, Kurup A, Tam VH. Nebulized colistin in the treatment of pneumonia due to multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 754-757.
130. Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Sambatakou H, Galani I, Giamarellou H. In vitro interaction of colistin and rifampin on multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Chemother 2003; 15: 235-238.
131. West SE, Zeng L, Lee BL et al. Respiratory infections with Pseudomonas aeruginosa in children with cystic fibrosis: Early detection by serology and assessment of risk factors. JAMA 2002; 287: 2958-2967.
132. Doring G, Conway SP, Heijerman HG et al. Antibiotic therapy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis: A European consensus. Eur Respir J 2000; 16: 749-767.
133. Starner TD, McCray PB. Pathogenesis of early lung disease in cystic fibrosis: A window of opportunity to eradicate bacteria. Ann Intern Med 2005; 143: 816-822.
134. Canton R, Cobos N, de Gracia J et al. Antimicrobial therapy for pulmonary pathogenic colonisation and infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11: 690-703.
135. Burns JL, Gibson RL, McNamara S et al. Longitudinal assessment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in young children with cystic fibrosis. J Infect Dis 2001; 183: 444-452.
136. Nixon GM, Armstrong DS, Carzino R et al. Clinical outcome after early Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in cystic fibrosis. J Pediatr 2001; 138: 699-704.
137. Rosenfeld M, Gibson RL, McNamara S et al. Early pulmonary infection, inflammation, and clinical outcomes in infants with cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 2001; 32: 356-366.
138. Doring G, Hoiby N. Early intervention and prevention of lung disease in cystic fibrosis: A European consensus. J Cyst Fibros 2004; 3: 67-91.
139. Lee TW, Brownlee KG, Conway SP, Denton M, Littlewood JM. Evaluation of a new definition for chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in cystic fibrosis patients. J Cyst Fibros 2003; 2: 29-34.
140. Pamukcu A, Bush A, Buchdahl R. Effects of Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonization on lung function and anthropometric variables in children with cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 1995; 19: 10-15.
141. Kosorok MR, Zeng L, West SE et al. Acceleration of lung disease in children with cystic fibrosis after Pseudomonas aeruginosa acquisition. Pediatr Pulmonol 2001; 32: 277-287.
142. Emerson J, Rosenfeld M, McNamara S, Ramsey B, Gibson RL. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other predictors of mortality and morbidity in young children with cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 2002; 34: 91-100.
143. Anonymous. Patient registry 1996 annual data report. Bethesda, MD: Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, 1997.
144. Baumann U, Stocklossa C, Greiner W, der Schulenburg JM, von der Hardt H. Cost of care and clinical condition in paediatric cystic fibrosis patients. J Cyst Fibros 2003; 2: 84-90.
145. Anonymous. Report of the UK Cystic Fibrosis Trust Antibiotic Group. Bromley: Cystic Fibrosis Trust, 2002.
146. Koch C. Early infection and progression of cystic fibrosis lung disease. Pediatr Pulmonol 2002; 34: 232-236.
147. Lee TW, Brownlee KG, Denton M, Littlewood JM, Conway SP. Reduction in prevalence of chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection at a regional pediatric cystic fibrosis center. Pediatr Pulmonol 2004; 37: 104-110.
148. Frederiksen B, Koch C, Hoiby N. Changing epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in Danish cystic fibrosis patients (1974-1995). Pediatr Pulmonol 1999; 28: 159-166.
149. Littlewood JM, Miller MG, Ghoneim AT, Ramsden CH. Nebulised colomycin for early Pseudomonas colonisation in cystic fibrosis. Lancet 1985; i: 865.
150. Valerius NH, Koch C, Hoiby N. Prevention of chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonisation in cystic fibrosis by early treatment. Lancet 1991; 338: 725-726.
151. Frederiksen B, Koch C, Hoiby N. Antibiotic treatment of initial colonization with Pseudomonas aeruginosa postpones chronic infection and prevents deterioration of pulmonary function in cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 1997; 23: 330-335.
152. Wiesemann HG, Steinkamp G, Ratjen F et al. Placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized study of aerosolized tobramycin for early treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonization in cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 1998; 25: 88-92.
153. Ratjen F, Doring G, Nikolaizik WH. Effect of inhaled tobramycin on early Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonisation in patients with cystic fibrosis. Lancet 2001; 358: 983-984.
154. Taccetti G, Repetto T, Procopio E, Farina S, Campana S. Early Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonisation in cystic fibrosis patients. Lancet 2002; 359: 625-626.
155. Ciofu O, Giwercman B, Pedersen SS, Hoiby N. Development of antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa during two decades of antipseudomonal treatment at the Danish CF Center. APMIS 1994; 102: 674-680.
156. Zach MS. Lung disease in cystic fibrosis - an updated concept. Pediatr Pulmonol 1990; 8: 188-202.
157. Wood DM, Smyth AR. Antibiotic strategies for eradicating Pseudomonas aeruginosa in people with cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; CD004197.
158. Marchetti F, Giglio L, Candusso M, Faraguna D, Assael BM. Early antibiotic treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonisation in cystic fibrosis: A critical review of the literature. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2004; 60: 67-74.
159. Heinzl B, Eber E, Oberwaldner B, Haas G, Zach MS. Effects of inhaled gentamicin prophylaxis on acquisition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in children with cystic fibrosis: A pilot study. Pediatr Pulmonol 2002; 33: 32-37.
160. Lebecque P, Leal T, Zylberberg K, Reychler G, Bossuyt X, Godding V. Towards zero prevalence of chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in children with cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros 2006; 5: 237-244.
161. de Groot R, Smith AL. Antibiotic pharmacokinetics in cystic fibrosis. Differences and clinical significance. Clin Pharmacokinet 1987; 13: 228-253.
162. Adeboyeku D, Scott S, Hodson ME. Open follow-up study of tobramycin nebuliser solution and colistin in patients with cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros 2006; 5: 261-263.
163. Klepser ME. Role of nebulized antibiotics for the treatment of respiratory infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2004; 17: 109-112.
164. Pai VB, Nahata MC. Efficacy and safety of aerosolized tobramycin in cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 2001; 32: 314-327.
165. Ryan G, Mukhopadhyay S, Singh M. Nebulised anti-pseudomonal antibiotics for cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; CD001021.
166. Mubareka S, Rubinstein E. Aerosolized colistin for the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia due to multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria in patients without cystic fibrosis. Crit Care 2005; 9: 29-30.
167. Rappaz I, Decosterd LA, Bille J, Pilet M, Belaz N, Roulet M. Continuous infusion of ceftazidime with a portable pump is as effective as thrice-a-day bolus in cystic fibrosis children. Eur J Pediatr 2000; 159: 919-925.
168. Vinks AA, Brimicombe RW, Heijerman HG, Bakker W. Continuous infusion of ceftazidime in cystic fibrosis patients during home treatment: Clinical outcome, microbiology and pharmacokinetics. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 40: 125-133.
169. Alghasham AA, Nahata MC. Clinical use of fluoroquinolones in children. Ann Pharmacother 2000; 34: 347-359.
170. Redmond A, Sweeney L, MacFarland M, Mitchell M, Daggett S, Kubin R. Oral ciprofloxacin in the treatment of Pseudomonas exacerbations of paediatric cystic fibrosis: Clinical efficacy and safety evaluation using magnetic resonance image scanning. J Int Med Res 1998; 26: 304-312.
171. Bosworth DG, Nielson DW. Effectiveness of home versus hospital care in the routine treatment of cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 1997; 24: 42-47.
172. Thornton J, Elliott R, Tully MP, Dodd M, Webb AK. Long term clinical outcome of home and hospital intravenous antibiotic treatment in adults with cystic fibrosis. Thorax 2004; 59: 242-246.
173. Rice LB. Unmet medical needs in antibacterial therapy. Biochem Pharmacol 2006; 71: 991-995.
174. Livermore DM. Can beta-lactams be re-engineered to beat MRSA? Clin Microbiol Infect 2006; 12 (suppl 2): 11-16.
175. Issa NC, Rouse MS, Piper KE, Wilson WR, Steckelberg JM, Patel R. In vitro activity of BAL9141 against clinical isolates of gram-negative bacteria. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2004; 48: 73-75.
176. Chen Y, Garber E, Zhao Q et al. In vitro activity of doripenem (S-4661) against multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacilli isolated from patients with cystic fibrosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 2510-2511.
177. Mushtaq S, Ge Y, Livermore DM. Doripenem versus Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro: Activity against characterized isolates, mutants, and transconjugants and resistance selection potential. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48: 3086-3092.
178. Traczewski MM, Brown SD. In vitro activity of doripenem against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia isolates from both cystic fibrosis and non-cystic fibrosis patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 819-821.
179. Bhavnani SM, Hammel JP, Cirincione BB, Wikler MA, Ambrose PG. Use of pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic target attainment analyses to support phase 2 and 3 dosing strategies for doripenem. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 3944-3947.
180. Kitamura A, Hoshino K, Kimura Y, Hayakawa I, Sato K. Contribution of the C-8 substituent of DU-6859a, a new potent fluoroquinolone, to its activity against DNA gyrase mutants of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 1467-1471.
181. Feldman C, White H, O'Grady J, Flitcroft A, Briggs A, Richards G. An open, randomised, multi-centre study comparing the safety and efficacy of sitafloxacin and imipenem/cilastatin in the intravenous treatment of hospitalised patients with pneumonia. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2001; 17: 177-188.
182. Zhanel GG, Karlowsky JA, Rubinstein E, Hoban DJ. Tigecycline: A novel glycylcycline antibiotic. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2006; 4: 9-25.
183. Livermore DM. Tigecycline: What is it, and where should it be used? J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 56: 611-614.
184. Dean CR, Visalli MA, Projan SJ, Sum PE, Bradford PA. Efflux-mediated resistance to tigecycline (GAR-936) in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 972-978.
185. Lynch AS. Efflux systems in bacterial pathogens: An opportunity for therapeutic intervention? An industry view. Biochem Pharmacol 2006; 71: 949-956.
186. Van Bambeke F, Pages J, Lee VJ. Inhibitors of bacterial efflux pumps as adjuvants in antibiotic treatments and diagnostic tools for detection of resistance by efflux. Rec Patents Antiinfect Drug Discov 2006; 1: 157-175.
187. Nakayama K, Ishida Y, Ohtsuka M et al. MexAB-OprM specific efflux pump inhibitors in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Part 2: Achieving activity in vivo through the use of alternative scaffolds. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2003; 13: 4205-4208.
188. Lomovskaya O, Warren MS, Lee A et al. Identification and characterization of inhibitors of multidrug resistance efflux pumps in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Novel agents for combination therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45: 105-116.
189. Holder IA. Pseudomonas immunotherapy: A historical overview. Vaccine 2004; 22: 831-839.
190. Sedlak-Weinstein E, Cripps AW, Kyd JM, Foxwell AR. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: The potential to immunise against infection. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2005; 5: 967-982.
191. Malfroot A, Adam G, Ciofu O et al. Immunisation in the current management of cystic fibrosis patients. J Cyst Fibros 2005; 4: 77-87.
192. Craven DE. Preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: Sowing seeds of change. Chest 2006; 130: 251-260.
193. Amsden G. Tables of antimicrobial agents pharmacology. In: Mandell G, Bennett J, Dolin R; eds, Principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2005; 634-700.
194. Moore RD, Smith CR, Lietman PS. Association of aminoglycoside plasma levels with therapeutic outcome in gram-negative pneumonia. Am J Med 1984; 77: 657-662.
195. Conte JE, Golden JA, McIver M, Zurlinden E. Intrapulmonary pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of high-dose levofloxacin in healthy volunteer subjects. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006; 28: 114-121.
196. Livermore DM. β-Lactamases in laboratory and clinical resistance. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995; 8: 557-584.
197. Masuda N, Sakagawa E, Ohya S, Gotoh N, Tsujimoto H, Nishino T. Substrate specificities of MexAB-OprM, MexCD-OprJ, and MexXY-OprM efflux pumps in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44: 3322-3327.
198. Maseda H, Yoneyama H, Nakae T. Assignment of the substrate-selective subunits of the MexEF-OprN multidrug efflux pump of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44: 658-664.