Biogeochemical modelling of the rise in atmospheric oxygen

Geobiology

Volumn 4, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 239-269

  Claire, M W ^a   Catling, D C ^a,b   Zahnle, K J ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

^c NASA AMES RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; ATMOSPHERIC MODELING; BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE; OXYGEN; PROTEROZOIC;

EID: 33751212435     PISSN: 14724677     EISSN: 14724669     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4669.2006.00084.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (175)

1. Aharon P (2005) Redox stratification and anoxia of the early Precambrian oceans: implications for carbon isotope excursions and oxidation events. Precambrian Research 137, 207-222.
2. Ahrens TJ (1993) Impact erosion of terrestrial planetary atmospheres. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 21, 525-555.
3. Anbar AD, Knoll AH (2002) Proterozoic ocean chemistry and evolution: a bioinorganic bridge? Science 297, 1137-1142.
4. Anders E, Grevesse N (1989) Abundances of the elements - meteoritic and solar. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 53, 197-214.
5. Arthur MA, Dean WE, Neff ED, Hay BJ, King J, Jones G (1994) Varve-calibrated records of carbonate and organic carbon accumulation over the last 2000 years in the Black Sea. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 8, 195-217.
6. Barley ME, Bekker A, Krapez B (2005) Late Archean to Early Paleoproterozoic global tectonics, environmental change and the rise of atmospheric oxygen. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 238, 156-171.
7. Beaumont V, Robert F (1999) Nitrogen isotope ratios of kerogens in Precambrian cherts: a record of the evolution of atmosphere chemistry? Precambrian Research 96, 63-82.
8. Bebout BM, Carpenter SP, Des Marais DJ, Discipulo M, Embaye T, Garcia-Pichel F, Hoehler TM, Hogan M, Jahnke LL, Keller RM, Miller SR, Prufert-Bebout LE, Raleigh C, Rothrock M, Turk K (2002) Long-term manipulations of intact microbial mat communities in a greenhouse collaboratory: simulating Earth's present and past field environments. Astrobiology 2, 383-402.
9. Bekker A, Holland HD, Wang PL, Rumble D, Stein HJ, Hannah JL, Coetzee LL, Beukes NJ (2004) Dating the rise of atmospheric oxygen. Nature 427, 117-120.
10. Berman-Frank I, Lundgren P, Falkowski P (2003) Nitrogen fixation and photosynthetic oxygen evolution in cyanobacteria. Research in Microbiology 154, 157-164.
11. Berner RA (2004) The Phanerozoic Carbon Cycle. Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 150.
12. Berner RA, Beerling DJ, Dudley R, Robinson JM, Wildman RA (2003) Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31, 105-134.
13. 2 over phanerozoic time. American Journal of Science 301, 182-204.
14. Betts JN, Holland HD (1991) The oxygen-content of ocean bottom waters, the burial efficiency of organic-carbon, and the regulation of atmospheric oxygen. Global and Planetary Change 97, 5-18.
15. Beukes NJ, Dorland H, Gutzmer J, Nedachi M, Ohmoto H (2002) Tropical laterites, life on land, and the history of atmospheric oxygen in the Paleoproterozoic. Geology 30, 491-494.
16. 3+/Sigma Fe ratios of MORB glasses and their implications for mantle melting. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 69, 711-725.
17. Bjerrum CJ, Canfield DE (2004) New insights into the burial history of organic carbon on the early Earth. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 5, Art. no. Q08001 (online).
18. Brocks JJ, Buick R, Summons RE, Logan GA (2003) A reconstruction of Archean biological diversity based on molecular fossils from the 2.78 To 2.45 billion-year-old Mount Bruce Supergroup, Hamersley Basin, Western Australia. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 67, 4321-4335.
19. Brocks JJ, Logan GA, Buick R, Summons RE (1999) Archean molecular fossils and the early rise of eukaryotes. Science 285, 1033-1036.
20. Brocks JJ, Love GD, Summons RE, Knoll AH, Logan GA, Bowden SA (2005) Biomarker evidence for green and purple sulphur bacteria in a stratified Palaeoproterozoic sea. Nature 437, 866-870.
21. Caldeira K, Kasting JF (1992a) The life span of the biosphere revisited. Nature 360, 721-723.
22. Caldeira K, Kasting JF (1992b) Susceptibility of the early Earth to irreversible glaciation caused by carbon dioxide clouds. Nature 359, 226-228.
23. Canfield DE (1998) A new model for Proterozoic ocean chemistry. Nature 396, 450-453.
24. Canfield DE (2005) The early history of atmospheric oxygen: homage to Robert A. Garrels. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 33, 1-36.
25. Canfield DE, Habicht KS, Thamdrup B (2000) The Archean sulfur cycle and the early history of atmospheric oxygen. Science 288, 658-661.
26. Canfield DE, Teske A (1996) Late-Proterozoic rise in atmospheric oxygen concentration inferred from phylogenetic and sulfur isotope studies. Nature 382, 127-132.
27. Canil D (1999) Vanadium partitioning between orthopyroxene, spinel and silicate melt and the redox states of mantle sources regions for primary magmas. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 63, 557-572.
28. Catling DC (2006) Comment on 'A Hydrogen-Rich Early Earth Atmosphere'. Science 311, 38a.
29. Catling DC, Claire MW (2005) How Earth's atmosphere evolved to an oxic state: a status report. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 237, 1-20.
30. Catling DC, Glein CR, Zahnle KJ, McKay CP (2005) Why O-2 is required by complex life on habitable planets and the concept of planetary 'oxygenation time'. Astrobiology 5, 415-438.
31. Catling DC, Zahnle KJ, McKay CP (2001) Biogenic methane, hydrogen escape, and the irreversible oxidation of early Earth. Science 293, 839-843.
32. Chaloner WG (1989) Fossil charcoal as an indicator of paleoatmospheric oxygen level. Journal of the Geological Society 146, 171-174.
33. Christensen UR (1985) Thermal evolution models for the Earth. Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth and Planets 90, 2995-3007.
34. Connolly JAD (1990) Multivariable phase-diagrams - an algorithm based on generalized thermodynamics. American Journal of Science 290, 666-718.
35. Connolly JAD, Cesare B (1993) C-O-H-S fluid composition and oxygen fugacity in graphitic metapelites. Journal of Metamorphic Geology 11, 379-388.
36. Coplen TB (1994) Reporting of stable hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen isotopic abundances. Pure and Applied Chemistry 66, 273-276.
37. D'Hondt S, Rutherford S, Spivack AJ (2002) Metabolic activity of subsurface life in deep-sea sediments. Science 295, 2067-2070.
38. Delano JW (2001) Redox history of the Earth's interior: implications for the origin of life. Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere 31, 311-341.
39. Des Marais DJ (2000) Evolution - when did photosynthesis emerge on Earth? Science 289, 1703-1705.
40. Des Marais DJ, Harwit MO, Jucks KW, Kasting JF, Lin DNC, Lunine JI, Schneider J, Seager S, Traub WA, Woolf NJ (2002) Remote sensing of planetary properties and biosignatures on extrasolar terrestrial planets. Astrobiology 2, 153-181.
41. Des Marais DJ, Strauss H, Summons RE, Hayes JM (1992) Carbon isotope evidence for the stepwise oxidation of the Proterozoic environment. Nature 359, 605-609.
42. Donohue CL, Essene EJ (2000) An oxygen barometer with the assemblage garnet-epidote. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 181, 459-472.
43. DuRand MD, Olson RJ, Chisholm SW (2001) Phytoplankton population dynamics at the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series station in the Sargasso Sea. Deep-Sea Research Part II-Topical Studies in Oceanography 48, 1983-2003.
44. Dutkiewicz A, Volk H, George SC, Ridley J, Buick R (2006) Biomarkers from Huronian oil-bearing fluid inclusions: an uncontaminated record of life before the Great Oxidation Event. Geology 34, 437-440.
45. Farquhar J, Bao H, Thiemans M (2000) Atmospheric influence of Earth's earliest sulfur cycle. Science 289, 756-758.
46. Farquhar J, Wing BA (2003) Multiple sulfur isotopes and the evolution of the atmosphere. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 213, 1-13.
47. Field CB, Behrenfeld MJ, Randerson JT, Falkowski P (1998) Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components. Science 281, 237-240.
48. Finlayson-Pitts J, Barbara J, Pitts JN (2000) Chemistry of the Upper and Lower Atmosphere: Theory, Experiments, and Applications. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 969.
49. Frost BR (1991) Introduction to oxygen fugacity and its petrologic importance. In: Reviews in Mineralogy (ed. Lindsley DH). Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C., pp. 1-9.
50. Garrels RM, Mackenzie FT (1971) Evolution of Sedimentary Rocks. Norton, New York, pp. 397.
51. Godderis Y, Veizer J (2000) Tectonic control of chemical and isotopic composition of ancient oceans: the impact of continental growth. American Journal of Science 300, 434-461.
52. Habicht KS, Gade M, Thamdrup B, Berg P, Canfield DE (2002) Calibration of sulfate levels in the Archean ocean. Science 298, 2372-2374.
53. 4. Geophysical Research Letters 23, 297-300.
54. Hayes JM (1994) Global methanotrophy at the Archean-Preoterozoic transition. In: Early Life on Earth (ed. Bengtson S). Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 220-236.
55. Hayes JM, Waldbauer JR (2006) The carbon cycle and associated redox processes through time. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B-Biological Sciences 361, 931-950.
56. Hinrichs KU (2002) Microbial fixation of methane carbon at 2.7 Ga: was an anaerobic mechanism responsible? Geology Geochemistry Geophysics, Volume 3, Article no. 1042 (online).
57. Hoehler TM, Bebout BM, DesMarais DJ (2001) The role of microbial mats in the production of reduced gases on the early Earth. Nature 412, 324-327.
58. Hoffman PF, Schrag DP (2002) The Snowball Earth hypothesis: testing the limits of global change. Terra Nova 14, 129-155.
59. Holland HD (1978) The Chemistry of the Atmosphere and Oceans. Wiley, New York, pp. 351.
60. Holland HD (1984) The Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 582.
61. Holland HD (2002) Volcanic gases, black smokers, and the Great Oxidation Event. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 66, 3811-3826.
62. Holland HD (2003) Discussion of the article by A. C. Lasaga and H. Ohmoto on 'The oxygen geochemical cycle: dynamics and stability', Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 66, 361-381, 2002. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 67, 787-789.
63. Holland HD (2006) The oxygenation of the atmosphere and oceans. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B-Biological Sciences 361, 903-915.
64. Holser WT, Schidlowski M, Mackenzie FT, Maynard JB (1988) Geochemical cycles of carbon and sulfur. In: Chemical Cycles in the Evolution of the Earth (eds Gregor CB, Garrels RM, Mackenzie FT, Maynard JB). Wiley, New York, pp. 105-173.
65. Hornafius JS, Quigley D, Luyendyk BP (1999) The world's most spectacular marine hydrocarbon seeps (Coal Oil Point, Santa Barbara Channel, California): quantification of emissions. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans 104, 20 703-20 711.
66. Houghton JT, ed. (1994) Climate Change, 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and an Evaluation of the IPCC Is92 Emission Scenarios. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
67. Huizenga JM (2001) Thermodynamic modelling of C-O-H fluids. Lithos 55, 101-114.
68. Hunten DM (1990) Kuiper-Prize Lecture - escape of atmospheres, ancient and modern. Icarus 85, 1-20.
69. Hunten DM (1993) Atmospheric evolution on the terrestrial planets. Science 259, 915-920.
70. Hunten DM, Donahue TM (1976) Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 4, 265-292.
71. Huston DL, Logan GA (2004) Barite, BIFs and bugs: evidence for the evolution of the Earth's early hydrosphere. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 220, 41-55.
72. Junge CE, Schidlowski M, Eichmann R, Pietrek H (1975) Model calculations for the terrestrial carbon cycle: carbon isotope geochemistry and evolution of photosynthetic oxygen. Journal of Geophysical Research 80, 4542-4552.
73. Kargel JS, Lewis JS (1993) The composition and early evolution of Earth. Icarus 105, 1-25.
74. Karhu JA, Holland HD (1996) Carbon isotopes and the rise of atmospheric oxygen. Geology 24, 867-870.
75. Kasting JF (1979) Evolution of oxygen and ozone in the Earth's atmosphere. PhD Thesis, University of Michigan, pp. 259.
76. Kasting JF (1988) Runaway and moist greenhouse atmospheres and the evolution of Earth and Venus. Icarus 74, 472-494.
77. Kasting JF (1992) Models relating to Proterozoic atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. In: The Proterozoic Biosphere: A Multidisciplinary Study (eds Schopf JW, Klein C). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1185-1187.
78. Kasting JF (1997) Habitable zones around low mass stars and the search for extraterrestrial life. Origins of Life 27, 291-307.
79. Kasting JF (2005) Methane and climate during the Precambrian era. Precambrian Research 137, 119-129.
80. 2 levels in the earth's early atmosphere. Science 234, 1383-1385.
81. Kasting JF, Brown LL (1998) Setting the stage: the early atmosphere as a source of biogenic compounds. In: The Molecular Origins of Life: Assembling the Pieces of the Puzzle (ed. Brack A). Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 35-56.
82. Kasting JF, Catling DC (2003) Evolution of a habitable planet. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 41, 429-463.
83. Kasting JF, Donahue TM (1980) The evolution of atmospheric ozone. Journal of Geophysical Research 85, 3255-3263.
84. Kasting JF, Eggler DH, Raeburn SP (1993) Mantle redox evolution and the oxidation state of the Archean atmosphere. Journal of. Geology 101, 245-257.
85. Kasting JF, Pavlov AA, Siefert JL (2001) A coupled ecosystem-climate model for predicting the methane concentration in the Archean atmosphere. Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere 31, 271-285.
86. 2 levels on surface temperature and atmospheric oxidation state of the early earth. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 1, 403-428.
87. Kemp AIS, Hawkesworth CJ (2004) Granitic perspectives on the generation and secular evolution of the continental crust. In: Treatise on Geochemistry - Vol. 3: the Crust (ed. Rudnick RL). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 349-410.
88. Kenrick P, Crane PR (1997) The origin and early evolution of plants on land. Nature 389, 33-39.
89. Kharecha P, Kasting JF, Siefert J (2005) A coupled atmosphere-ecosystem model of the early Archean Earth. Geobiology 3, 53-76.
90. Kirschvink JL (1992) Late Proterozoic low-latitude global glaciation: the Snowball Earth. In: The Proterozoic Biosphere (eds Klein JW, Sa C). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 51-52.
91. Knoll AH, Carroll SB (1999) Early animal evolution: emerging views from comparative biology and geology. Science 284, 2129-2137.
92. Kopp RE, Kirschvink JL, Hilburn IA, Nash CZ (2005) The paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: a climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102, 11 131-11 136.
93. Kral TA, Brink KM, Miller SL, McKay CP (1998) Hydrogen consumption by methanogens on the early Earth. Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere 28, 311-319.
94. Kulikov YN, Lammer H, Lichtenegger HIM, Penz T, Breuer D, Spohn T, Lundin R, Biernat HK (2006) A comparative study of the influence of the active young sun on the early atmospheres of Earth, Venus, and Mars. Space Science Reviews, in press.
95. Kump LR, Kasting JF, Barley ME (2001) The rise of atmospheric oxygen and the 'upside-down' Archean mantle. Geology Geochemistry Geophysics 2, (online).
96. Kump LR, Seyfried WE (2005) Hydrothermal Fe fluxes during the Precambrian: effect of low oceanic sulfate concentrations and low hydrostatic pressure on the composition of black smokers. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 235, 654-662.
97. Lecuyer C, Ricard Y (1999) Long-term fluxes and budget of ferric iron: implication for the redox states of the Earth's mantle and atmosphere. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 165, 197-211.
98. Li ZXA, Lee CTA (2004) The constancy of upper mantle fO (2) through time inferred from V/Sc ratios in basalts. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 228, 483-493.
99. Lindsay JF, Brasier MD (2002) Did global tectonics drive early biosphere evolution? Carbon isotope record from 2.6 To 1.9 Ga carbonates of Western Australian basins. Precambrian Research 114, 1-34.
100. Lovelock JE, Kump LR (1994) Failure of climate regulation in a geophysiological model. Nature 369, 732-734.
101. Manning CE, Ingebritsen SE (1999) Permeability of the continental crust: Implications of geothermal data and metamorphic systems. Reviews of Geophysics 37, 127-150.
102. McDonough WF, Sun S-S (1995) Composition of the Earth. Chemical Geology 120, 223-253.
103. Melezhik VA, Fallick AE, Medvedev PV, Makarikhin VV (1999) Extreme C-13 (carb) enrichment in ca, 2.0 Ga magnesite-stromatolite-dolomite - 'red beds' association in a global context: a case for the world-wide signal enhanced by a local environment. Earth-Science Reviews 48, 71-120.
104. Melezhik VA, Fallick AE, Rychanchik DV, Kuznetsov AB (2005) Palaeoproterozoic evaporites in Fennoscandia: implications for seawater sulphate, the rise of atmospheric oxygen and local amplification of the delta C-13 excursion. Terra Nova 17, 141-148.
105. Melnik YP (1982) Precambrian Banded Iron-Formations: Physicochemical Conditions of Formation. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 310.
106. Milkov AV, Etiope G (2005) Global methane emission through mud volcanoes and its past and present impact on the Earth's climate-a comment. International Journal of Earth Sciences 94, 490-492.
107. Milkov AV, Sassen R, Apanasovich TV, Dadashev FG (2003) Global gas flux from mud volcanoes: a significant source of fossil methane in the atmosphere and the ocean. Geophysical Research Letters 30, (9) 1-4.
108. Moisan JR, Moisan TA, Abbott MR (2002) Modelling the effect of temperature on the maximum growth rates of phytoplankton populations. Ecological Modelling 153, 197-215.
109. Moore LR, Goericke R, Chisholm SW (1995) Comparative physiology of Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus - influence of light and temperature on growth, pigments, fluorescence and absorptive properties. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 116, 259-275.
110. Morner NA, Etiope G (2002) Carbon degassing from the lithosphere. Global and Planetary Change 33, 185-203.
111. 2 sink in the Early Archean. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 68, 4595-4618.
112. Ohmoto H (1996) Evidence in pre-2.2 Ga paleosols for the early evolution of atmospheric oxygen and terrestrial biota. Geology 24, 1135-1138.
113. Ohmoto H, Kerrick D (1977) Devolatilization equilibria in graphitic systems. American Journal of Science 277, 1013-1044.
114. Ono S, Eigenbrode JL, Pavlov AA, Kharecha P, Rumble D III, Kasting JF, Freeman KH (2003) New insights into Archean sulfur cycle from mass-independent sulfur isotope records from the Hamersley Basin, Australia. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 213, 15-30.
115. 4: sources, flux, and detection. Astrobiology 6, 377-395.
116. 2+ in synthetic basaltic glass: a test of empirical fO (2) equations under superliquidus and subliquidus conditions. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 147, 565-580.
117. Patchett PJ, Arndt NT (1986) Nd isotopes and tectonics of 1.9-1.7 Ga crustal genesis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 78, 329-338.
118. de Pater I, Lissauer JJ (2001) Planetary Sciences. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 528.
119. Pavlov AA, Hurtgen MT, Kasting JF, Arthur MA (2003) Methane-rich Proterozoic atmosphere? Geology 31, 87-90.
120. Pavlov AA, Kasting JF (2002) Mass-independent fractionation of sulfur isotopes in Archean sediments: strong evidence for an anoxic Archean atmosphere. Astrobiology 2, 27-41.
121. 2 by organic hazes in the Archean atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research 106, 23 267-23 287.
122. 4 in the atmosphere of early Earth. Journal of Geophysical Research 105, 11 981-11 990.
123. Pearson DG, Canil D, Shirey SS (2004) Mantle samples included in volcanic rocks: xenoliths and diamonds. In: Treatise on Geochemistry - Vol. 2: the Mantle and Core (ed. Carlson RW). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 171-275.
124. Petsch ST (2004) The global oxygen cycle. In: Treatise on Geochemistry - Vol. 8: Biogeochemistry (ed. Schlesinger WH). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 515-555.
125. Poulton SW, Fralick PW, Canfield DE (2004) The transition to a sulphidic ocean similar to 1.84 billion years ago. Nature 431, 173-177.
126. Raghoebarsing AA, Pol A, van de Pas-Schoonen KT, Smolders AJP, Ettwig KF, Rijpstra WIC, Schouten S, Damste JSS, Op den Camp HJM, Jetten MSM, Strous M (2006) A microbial consortium couples anaerobic methane oxidation to denitrification. Nature 440, 918-921.
127. Rasmussen B, Buick R (1999) Redox state of the Archean atmosphere: evidence from detrital heavy minerals in ca. 3250-2750 Ma sandstones from the Pilbara Craton, Australia. Geology 27, 115-118.
128. Raymond SN, Quinn T, Lunine JI (2005a) The formation and habitability of terrestrial planets in the presence of close-in giant planets. Icarus 177, 256-263.
129. Raymond SN, Quinn T, Lunine JI (2005b) Terrestrial planet formation in disks with varying surface density profiles. Astrophysical Journal 632, 670-676.
130. Raymond SN, Quinn T, Lunine JI (2006a) High-resolution simulations of the final assembly of Earth-like planets 2: water delivery and planetary habitability. Astrobiology, in press.
131. Raymond SN, Quinn T, Lunine JI (2006b) High-resolution simulations of the final assembly of Earth-like planets I: terrestrial accretion and dynamics. Icarus 183, 265-282.
132. Reeburgh WS, Ward BB, Whalen SC, Sandbeck KA, Kilpatrick KA, Kerkhof LJ (1991) Black-Sea methane geochemistry. Deep-Sea Research Part a-Oceanographic Research Papers 38, S1189-S1210.
133. Rogers JJW, Santosh M (2004) Continents and Supercontinents. Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 289.
134. Ronov AB (1983) The earth's sedimentary shell: quantitative patterns of its structure, composition, and evolution. AGI Reprint Series - originally published in International Geology Review V. 24, 1982, 5, 1-80.
135. Rothman DH, Hayes JM, Summons RE (2003) Dynamics of the Neoproterozoic carbon cycle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100, 8124-8129.
136. Rudnick RL, Gao S (2004) The composition of the continental crust. In: Treatise on Geochemistry - Vol. 3: the Crustacean (ed. Rudnick RL). Oxford University Press, pp. 1-64.
137. Rudnick RL, McDonough WF, O'Connell RJ (1998) Thermal structure, thickness and composition of continental lithosphere. Chemical Geology 145, 395-411.
138. Runnegar B (1991) Precambrian oxygen levels estimated from the biochemistry and physiology of early eukaryotes. Global and Planetary Change 97, 97-111.
139. Ruttenberg KC (2004) The global phosphorus cycle. In: Treatise on Geochemistry - Vol. 8: Biogeochemistry (ed. Schlesinger WH). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 585-643.
140. Rye R, Holland HD (1998) Paleosols and the evolution of atmospheric oxygen: a critical review. American Journal of Science 298, 621-672.
141. Sack RO, Carmichael ISE, Rivers M, Ghiorso MS (1980) Ferric-ferrous equilibria in natural silicate liquids at 1 bar. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 75, 369-376.
142. Schidlowski M (1988) A 3800-million-year isotopic record of life from carbon in sedimentary rocks. Nature 333, 313-318.
143. Schidlowski M (2001) Carbon isotopes as biogeochemical recorders of life over 3.8 Ga of Earth history: evolution of a concept. Precambrian Research 106, 117-134.
144. Silver LT, Chappell BW (1988) The Penisular Ranges Batholiths: an insight into the evolution of the Cordilleran batholiths of southwestern North America. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Science 79, 105-121.
145. Sleep NH (2005a) Dioxygen over geologic time. In: Metal Ions in Biology Systems, Vol. 43 - Biogeochemical Cycles of Elements (eds Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel R). Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 49-73.
146. Sleep NH (2005b) Evolution of the continental lithosphere. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 33, 369-393.
147. Sleep NH, Bird DK (2007) Niches of the pre-photosynthetic biosphere and geologic preservation of Earth's earliest ecology. Geobiology, in press.
148. Sleep NH, Hessler AM (2006) Weathering of quartz as an Archean climatic indicator. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 241, 594-602.
149. Sleep NH, Windley BF (1982) Archean plate tectonics - constraints and inferences. Journal of Geology 90, 363-379.
150. Sleep NH, Zahnle KJ (2001) Carbon dioxide cycling and implications for climate on ancient Earth. Journal of Geophysical Research 106, 1373-1399.
151. Summons RE, Bradley AS, Jahnke LL, Waldbauer JR (2006) Steroids, triterpenoids and molecular oxygen. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B-Biological Sciences 361, 951-968.
152. Summons RE, Brocks JJ (2004) Sedimentary hydrocarbons, biomarkers for early life. In: Treatise on Geochemistry - Vol. 8: Biogeochemistry (ed. Schlesinger WH). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 63-115.
153. Tang EPY, Tremblay R, Vincent WF (1997) Cyanobacterial dominance of polar freshwater ecosystems: are high-latitude mat-formers adapted to low temperature? Journal of Phycology 33, 171-181.
154. Taylor SR, McLennan SM (1995) The geochemical evolution of continental crust. Reviews in Geophysics 33, 241-265.
155. Teske A, Dhillon A, Sogin ML (2003) Genomic markers of ancient anaerobic microbial pathways: sulfate reduction, methanogenesis, and methane oxidation. Biology Bulletin 204, 186-191.
156. Tian F, Toon OB, Pavlov AA, De Sterck H (2005) A hydrogen-rich early Earth atmosphere. Science 308, 1014-1017.
157. Tyrell T (1999) The relative influences of nitrogen and phosphorus on oceanic primary production. Nature 400, 525-531.
158. Valentine DL (2002) Biogeochemistry and microbial ecology of methane oxidation in anoxic environments: a review. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek International Journal of General and Molecular Microbiology 81, 271-282.
159. Walker JCG (1977) Evolution of the Atmosphere. Macmillan, New York, pp. 318.
160. Walker JCG (1990a) Numerical Adventures with Geochemical Cycles. Oxford University Press, pp. 210.
161. Walker JCG (1990b) Origin of an inhabited planet. In: Origin of the Earth (eds Newsom HE, Jones JH). Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 371-375.
162. Walker JCG, Brimblecombe P (1985) Iron and sulfur in the pre-biologic ocean. Precambrian Research 28, 205-222.
163. Walker JCG, Hays PB, Kasting JF (1981) A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of Earth's surface temperature. Journal of Geophysical Research 86, 9776-9782.
164. Walker JCG, Klein C, Schidlowski M, Schopf JW, Stevenson DJ, Walter MR (1983) Environmental evolution of the Archean-Early Proterozoic Earth. In: Earth's Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evolution (ed. Schopf JW). Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, pp. 260-290.
165. Walter FM, Barry DC (1991) Pre- and main-sequence evolution of solar activity. In: The Sun in Time (eds Sonett CP, Giampapa MS, Matthews MS). University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ, pp. 633-657.
166. Warren SG, Brandt RE, Grenfell TC, McKay CP (2002) Snowball Earth: ice thickness on the tropical ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans 107, 1-18.
167. Watson AJ, Donahue TM, Walker JCG (1981) The dynamics of a rapidly escaping atmosphere: applications to the evolution of Earth and Venus. Icarus 48, 150-166.
168. Watson A, Lovelock JE, Margulis L (1978) Methanogenesis, fires and the regulation of atmospheric oxygen. Biosystems 10, 293-298.
169. Watson RT, Rodhe H, Oeschger H, Siegenthaler U (1990) Greenhouse gases and aerosols. In: Climate Change: the IPCC Scientific Assessment (eds Houghton JT, Jenkins GJ, Ephraums JJ). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1-40.
170. Wedepohl KH (1995) The composition of the continental-crust. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59, 1217-1232.
171. Wildman RA, Hickey LJ, Dickinson MB, Berner RA, Robinson JM, Dietrich M, Essenhigh RH, Wildman CB (2004) Burning of forest materials under late Paleozoic high atmospheric oxygen levels. Geology, 457-460.
172. Yang WB, Holland HD (2003) The Hekpoort paleosol profile in Strata 1 at Gaborone, Botswana: soil formation during the great oxidation event. American Journal of Science 303, 187-220.
173. Young GM, Long DGF, Fedo CM, Nesbitt HW (2001) Paleoproterozoic Huronian basin: product of a Wilson cycle punctuated by glaciations and a meteorite impact. Sedimentary Geology 141, 233-254.
174. Zahnle KJ (1986) Photochemistry of methane and the formation of hydrocyanic acid (HCN) in the Earth's early atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research 91, 2819-2834.
175. Zahnle KJ, Claire MW, Catling DC (2006) The loss of mass-independent fractionation in sulfur due to a Paleoproterozoic collapse of atmospheric methane. Geobiology, doi: 10.1111/j.1472-4669.2006.00085.x.