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3
-
-
0347026608
-
-
note
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Geochemical evidence of a hydrothermal source for Fe in BIFs is presented in (123, 124).
-
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9
-
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0345765496
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-
note
-
The Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic Eons span the intervals 3800 to 2500 Ma, 2500 to 543 Ma, and 543 to 0 Ma, respectively. The Pateoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, and Neoproterozoic Eras span the intervals 2500 to 1600 Ma, 1600 to 1000 Ma, and 1000 to 543 Ma, respectively. Here, "mid-Proterozoic" refers to the interval 1800 to 1250 Ma.
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0346396549
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note
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Anoxic conditions amenable to BSR occurred at least locally and sporadically since the Archean, as they do today in the waters of restricted ocean basins and in marine sediments.
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17
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0346396548
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-
note
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For a review of relevant S isotope systematics, see (125).
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18
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0346396547
-
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note
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CDT - 1] × 1000.
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21
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0347026606
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note
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2 penetration at least below the photic zone [see (12) and references therein].
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22
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0347657381
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note
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Precambrian S isotope data and interpretations are reviewed by Canfield and colleagues in (8) and (125); see also (126, 127).
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24
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0346396545
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note
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A different interpretation is given in (128, 129). But see also a rebuttal in (130).
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25
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0345765492
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note
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2- is abundant.
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0347026603
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PDB - 1] × 1000.
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0346396526
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note
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Acritarchs are closed, organic-walled microfossils of uncertain systematic relationships; most are thought to be the vegetative or reproductive walls of eukaryotic algae.
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0347026598
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note
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2 would also have contributed to low surface water Fe concentrations. However, Fe availability may have been higher than in modern, oxygenated oceans because Fe concentrations are elevated in the anoxic but nonsulfidic waters that would have characterized the redoxcline in such chemically stratified oceans.
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82
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0346396509
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note
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Mo is supplied to the upper part of the Black Sea primarily by regional rivers with Mo concentrations four times that of global-average river water (131). Therefore, Mo concentrations in the Black Sea generally, and especially near the surface, are higher than would be expected in analogous portions of the hypothesized sulfidic mid-Proterozoic oceans far from riverine sources. Fe concentrations in the Black Sea - ∼20 nM at depth (75) - are also likely elevated by proximity to riverine and aeolian sources.
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83
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0347026592
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note
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2.
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85
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0345765468
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note
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Compared to today, an elevated dust budget was possible in a Precambrian world without rooted terrestrial vegetation. As it is today, dust could have been an important source of Fe to the mid-Proterozoic oceans because of the high concentration of Fe in the crust. By comparison, aeolian delivery of Mo and most other transition metals was likely unimportant because their crustal concentrations are many orders of magnitude lower.
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88
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0347026591
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note
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A fourth nitrogenase, structurally distinct from the other three, has recently been identified in the chemoautotroph Streptomyces thermoautotrophicus (132). It also appears to require Mo and Fe, and its importance in nature is unknown.
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91
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0347026590
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note
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Because the specific activity of MoFe-nitrogenase is lower than that of VFe-nitrogenase at temperatures <10°C (90), VFe-nitrogenase may be more important in nature than is generally appreciated.
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0347026587
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Mo-free dissimilatory nitrate reductase has been reported (133), and W can replace Mo in some bacterial and archaeal molybdopterin-based enzymes (134).
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2 can be converted to bioavailable N by abiotic processes (135, 136), the conservation of nitrogenase enzymes across archaeal and bacterial lines (137) is consistent with an ancient origin for this biochemistry, suggesting that the supply of abiogenic fixed N to the Archean biosphere was inadequate to support early ecosystems.
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100
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0347657361
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note
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Fe availability in surface waters may have decreased earlier, after the development of oxygenic photosynthesis in the Archean, but resupply by upwelling of anoxic, Fe-rich deep waters, evidenced by BIF deposition, presumably prevented biospheric crisis.
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101
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0347026586
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note
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VFe-nitrogenase may have been particularly important at this time because V sulfides are more soluble than Mo sulfides (73).
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102
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0345765461
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note
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Strategies used by the marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium are summarized in (138).
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104
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0347026584
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note
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15N values in kerogens.
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107
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0347657278
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note
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Carbonic anhydrase, important for uptake of inorganic carbon, is a Zn enzyme in eukaryotes and prokaryotes and a Cd enzyme in some marine diatoms (141-143).
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0347657272
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Brasier and Lindsay (44) alternatively proposed that the mid-Proterozoic oceans were P limited. However, there is no compelling connection between P limitation and delayed eukaryotic diversification.
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We thank M. Anbar, R. Buick, D. E. Canfield, A. S. Colman, R. R. Eady, P. G. Falkowski, A. J. Kaufman, J. McCarthy, K. H. Nealson, A. Post, Y. Shen, and E. I. Stiefel for helpful discussions. N. Butterfield and T. W. Lyons provided insightful reviews. Supported by NSF grants CHE 9714282 and EAR 0106712 (A.D.A.) and by the NASA Astrobiology/Institute.
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