Individual differences in physical activity are closely associated with changes in body weight in adult female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology

Volumn 291, Issue 3, 2006, Pages

  Sullivan, Elinor L ^a,b   Koegler, Frank H ^b   Cameron, Judy L ^a,b,c,d  

^a OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Energy balance; Exercise; Obesity; Weight gain

Indexed keywords

ACCELEROMETRY; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ARTICLE; CALORIC INTAKE; CONTROLLED STUDY; FEMALE; FOOD INTAKE; METABOLIC RATE; NONHUMAN; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RHESUS MONKEY; WEIGHT CHANGE; WEIGHT GAIN;

ANIMALS; ENERGY METABOLISM; FEMALE; MACACA MULATTA; MOTOR ACTIVITY; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 33748452291     PISSN: 03636119     EISSN: 15221490     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00069.2006     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Abbott RA and Davies PS. Habitual physical activity and physical activity intensity: their relation to body composition in 5.0-10.5-y-old children. Eur J Clin Nutr 58: 285-291, 2004.
2. Ainslie DA, Morris MJ, Wittert G, Turnbull H, Proietto J, and Thorburn AW. Estrogen deficiency causes central leptin insensitivity and increased hypothalamic neuropeptide Y. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25: 1680-1688, 2001.
3. Baecke JA, van Staveren WA, and Burema J. Food consumption, habitual physical activity, and body fatness in young Dutch adults. Am J Clin Nutr 37: 278-286, 1983.
4. Bandini LG, Schoeller DA, Edwards J, Young VR, Oh SH, and Dietz WH. Energy expenditure during carbohydrate overfeeding in obese and nonobese adolescents. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 256: E357-E367, 1989.
5. Bellisle F, Rolland-Cachera MF, Deheeger M, and Guilloud-Bataille M. Obesity and food intake in children: evidence for a role of metabolic and/or behavioral daily rhythms. Appetite 11: 111-118, 1988.
6. Birkbeck JA. Obesity, socioeconomic variables and eating habits in New Zealand. J Biosoc Sci 13: 299-307, 1981.
7. Black AE, Coward WA, Cole TJ, and Prentice AM. Human energy expenditure in affluent societies: an analysis of 574 doubly-labelled water measurements. Eur J Clin Nutr 50: 72-92, 1996.
8. Blanc S, Schoeller D, Kemnitz J, Weindruch R, Colman R, Newton W, Wink K, Baum S, and Ramsey J. Energy expenditure of rhesus monkeys subjected to 11 years of dietary restriction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: 16-23, 2003.
9. Blaxter KL. Energy Metabolism in Animals and Man. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
10. Borer KT, Bonna R, and Kielb M. Hippocampal serotonin mediates hypoactivity in dietarily obese hamsters: a possible manifestation of aging? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 31: 885-892, 1988.
11. Brehm BJ, Spang SE, Lattin BL, Seeley RJ, Daniels SR, and D'Alessio DA. The role of energy expenditure in the differential weight loss in obese women on low-fat and low-carbohydrate diets. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90: 1475-1482, 2005.
12. Brody S. Bioenergetics and Growth. New York: Reinhold, 1945.
13. Brown WJ, Williams L, Ford JH, Ball K, and Dobson AJ. Identifying the energy gap: magnitude and determinants of 5-year weight gain in midage women. Obes Res 13: 1431-1441, 2005.
14. Brownlow BS, Petro A, Feinglos MN, and Surwit RS. The role of motor activity in diet-induced obesity in C57BL/6J mice. Physiol Behav 60: 37-41, 1996.
15. Carpenter CL, Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, and Bernstein L. Lifetime exercise activity and breast cancer risk among post-menopausal women. Br J Cancer 80: 1852-1858, 1999.
16. Castaneda TR, Jurgens H, Wiedmer P, Pfluger P, Diano S, Horvath TL, Tang-Christensen M, and Tschop MH. Obesity and the neuroendocrine control of energy homeostasis: the role of spontaneous locomotor activity. J Nutr 135: 1314-1319, 2005.
17. Chang CJ, Wu CH, Yao WJ, Yang YC, Wu JS, and Lu FH. Relationships of age, menopause and central obesity on cardiovascular disease risk factors in Chinese women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24: 1699-1704, 2000.
18. Christin L, O'Connell M, Bogardus C, Danforth E Jr, and Ravussin E. Norepinephrine turnover and energy expenditure in Pima Indian and white men. Metabolism 42: 723-729, 1993.
19. Chu SC, Chou YC, Liu JY, Chen CH, Shyu JC, and Chou FP. Fluctuation of serum leptin level in rats after ovariectomy and the influence of estrogen supplement. Life Sci 64: 2299-2306, 1999.
20. Clark LD and Gay PE. Activity and body-weight relationships in genetically obese animals. Biol Psychiatry 4: 247-250, 1972.
21. Cohen-Zion M and Ancoli-Israel S. Sleep in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a review of naturalistic and stimulant intervention studies. Sleep Med Rev 8: 379-402, 2004.
22. Colditz GA, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Hennekens CH, Arky RA, and Speizer FE. Weight as a risk factor for clinical diabetes in women. Am J Epidemiol 132: 501-513, 1990.
23. Di Pietro L, Dziura J, and Blair SN. Estimated change in physical activity level (PAL) and prediction of 5-year weight change in men: the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28: 1541-1547, 2004.
24. Donzanti BA and Uretsky NJ. Effects of excitatory amino acids on locomotor activity after bilateral microinjection into the rat nucleus accumbens: possible dependence on dopaminergic mechanisms. Neuropharmacology 22: 971-981, 1983.
25. Dunnington EA, White JM, and Vinson WE. Genetic parameters of serum cholesterol levels, activity and growth in mice. Genetics 85: 659-668, 1977.
26. Dzoljic E, De Vries R, and Dzoljic MR. New and potent inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase reduce motor activity in mice. Behav Brain Res 87: 209-212, 1997.
27. Ekelund U, Aman J, Yngve A, Renman C, Westerterp K, and Sjostrom M. Physical activity but not energy expenditure is reduced in obese adolescents: a case-control study. Am J Clin Nutr 76: 935-941, 2002.
28. Ekelund U, Sardinha LB, Anderssen SA, Harro M, Franks PW, Brage S, Cooper AR, Andersen LB, Riddoch C, and Froberg K. Associations between objectively assessed physical activity and indicators of body fatness in 9- to 10-y-old European children: a population-based study from 4 distinct regions in Europe (the European Youth Heart Study). Am J Clin Nutr 80: 584-590, 2004.
29. Fallon JH and Moore RY. Catecholamine innervation of the basal forebrain. IV. Topography of the dopamine projection to the basal forebrain and neostriatum. J Comp Neurol 180: 545-580, 1978.
30. Fettman MJ, Stanton CA, Banks LL, Hamar DW, Johnson DE, Hegstad RL, and Johnston S. Effects of neutering on bodyweight, metabolic rate and glucose tolerance of domestic cats. Res Vet Sci 62: 131-136, 1997.
31. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, and Johnson CL. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2000. JAMA 288: 1723-1727, 2002.
32. Folsom AR, Jacobs DR Jr, Wagenknecht LE, Winkhart SP, Yunis C, Hilner JE, Savage PJ, Smith DE, and Flack JM. Increase in fasting insulin and glucose over seven years with increasing weight and inactivity of young adults. The CARDIA Study. Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults. Am J Epidemiol 144: 235-246, 1996.
33. 2-dependent control of feeding, weight gain, and cholecystokinin satiation in ER-α null mice. Endocrinology 142: 4751-4757, 2001.
34. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, and Willett WC. Physical activity, obesity, and risk for colon cancer and adenoma in men. Ann Intern Med 122: 327-334, 1995.
35. Goran MI, Figueroa R, McGloin A, Nguyen V, Treuth MS, and Nagy TR. Obesity in children: recent advances in energy metabolism and body composition. Obes Res 3: 277-289, 1995.
36. Grillol LP, Siqueira AF, Silva AC, Martins PA, Verreschi IT, and Sawaya AL. Lower resting metabolic rate and higher velocity of weight gain in a prospective study of stunted vs nonstunted girls living in the shantytowns of São Paulo, Brazil. Eur J Clin Nutr 59: 835-842, 2005.
37. Guillaume M, Lapidus L, and Lambert A. Obesity and nutrition in children. The Belgian Luxembourg Child Study IV. Eur J Clin Nutr 52: 323-328, 1998.
38. Haffner SM, Katz MS, and Dunn JF. Increased upper body and overall adiposity is associated with decreased sex hormone binding globulin in postmenopausal women. Int J Obes 15: 471-478, 1991.
39. Hambly C, Adams A, Fustin JM, Rance KA, Bunger L, and Speakman JR. Mice with low metabolic rates are not susceptible to weight gain when fed a high-fat diet. Obes Res 13: 556-566, 2005.
40. Hamm P, Shekelle RB, and Stamler J. Large fluctuations in body weight during young adulthood and twenty-five-year risk of coronary death in men. Am J Epidemiol 129: 312-318, 1989.
41. Heisler LK, Kanarek RB, and Homoleski B. Reduction of fat and protein intakes but not carbohydrate intake following acute and chronic fluoxetine in female rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 63: 377-385, 1999.
42. Hill C, Lapanowski K, and Dunbar JC. The effects of β-endorphin (β-END) on cardiovascular and behavioral dynamics in conscious rats. Brain Res Bull 59: 29-34, 2002.
43. Hunter GR and Byrne NM. Physical activity and muscle function but not resting energy expenditure impact on weight gain. J Strength Cond Res 19: 225-230, 2005.
44. Janz KF, Levy SM, Burns TL, Torner JC, Willing MC, and Warren JJ. Fatness, physical activity, and television viewing in children during the adiposity rebound period: the Iowa Bone Development Study. Prev Med 35: 563-571, 2002.
45. Johnson ML, Burke BS, and Mayer J. Relative importance of inactivity and overeating in the energy balance of obese high school girls. Am J Clin Nutr 4: 37-44, 1956.
46. ω nitroarginine. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 63: 698-702, 1999.
47. Kiwaki K, Kotz CM, Wang C, Lanningham-Foster L, and Levine JA. Orexin A (hypocretin 1) injected into hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and spontaneous physical activity in rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 286: E551-E559, 2004.
48. Klein S, Burke LE, Bray GA, Blair S, Allison DB, Pi-Sunyer X, Hong Y, and Eckel RH. Clinical implications of obesity with specific focus on cardiovascular disease: a statement for professionals from the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism: endorsed by the American College of Cardiology Foundation. Circulation 110: 2952-2967, 2004.
49. Klesges RC, Eck LH, Mellon MW, Fulliton W, Somes GW, and Hanson CL. The accuracy of self-reports of physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 22: 690-697, 1990.
50. Klesges RC, Klesges LM, Haddock CK, and Eck LH. A longitudinal analysis of the impact of dietary intake and physical activity on weight change in adults. Am J Clin Nutr 55: 818-822, 1992.
51. Kotani K, Tokunaga K, Fujioka S, Kobatake T, Keno Y, Yoshida S, Shimomura I, Tarui S, and Matsuzawa Y. Sexual dimorphism of age-related changes in whole-body fat distribution in the obese. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 18: 207-202, 1994.
52. Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Taimela S, and Sarna S. Prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, and ischemic heart disease in former elite athletes. Metabolism 43: 1255-1260, 1994.
53. Kyle UG, Gremion G, Genton L, Slosman DO, Golay A, and Pichard C. Physical activity and fat-free and fat mass by bioelectrical impedance in 3853 adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33: 576-584, 2001.
54. Lane MA, Baer DJ, Rumpler WV, Weindruch R, Ingram DK, Tilmont EM, Cutler RG, and Roth GS. Calorie restriction lowers body temperature in rhesus monkeys, consistent with a postulated anti-aging mechanism in rodents. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 4159-4164, 1996.
55. Lane MA, Baer DJ, Tilmont EM, Rumpler WV, Ingram DK, Roth GS, and Cutler RG. Energy balance in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) subjected to long-term dietary restriction. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 50: B295-B302, 1995.
56. Lara-Castro C, Weinsier RL, Hunter GR, and Desmond R. Visceral adipose tissue in women: longitudinal study of the effects of fat gain, time, and race. Obes Res 10: 868-874, 2002.
57. Lassmann V, Vague P, Vialettes B, and Simon MC. Low plasma levels of pancreatic polypeptide in obesity. Diabetes 29: 428-430, 1980.
58. Lee IM, Sesso HD, and Paffenbarger RS Jr. Physical activity and coronary heart disease risk in men: does the duration of exercise episodes predict risk? Circulation 102: 981-986, 2000.
59. Levin BE. Spontaneous motor activity during the development and maintenance of diet-induced obesity in the rat. Physiol Behav 50: 573-581, 1991.
60. Levine JA, Eberhardt NL, and Jensen MD. Role of nonexercise activity thermogenesis in resistance to fat gain in humans. Science 283: 212-214, 1999.
61. Levine JA, Lanningham-Foster LM, McCrady SK, Krizan AC, Olson LR, Kane PH, Jensen MD, and Clark MM. Interindividual variation in posture allocation: possible role in human obesity. Science 307: 584-586, 2005.
62. Lewis CE, Jacobs DR Jr, McCreath H, Kiefe CI, Schreiner PJ, Smith DE, and Williams OD. Weight gain continues in the 1990s: 10-year trends in weight and overweight from the CARDIA study. Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults. Am J Epidemiol 151: 1172-1181, 2000.
63. Ley CJ, Lees B, and Stevenson JC. Sex- and menopause-associated changes in body-fat distribution. Am J Clin Nutr 55: 950-954, 1992.
64. Littman AJ, Kristal AR, and White E. Effects of physical activity intensity, frequency, and activity type on 10-y weight change in middle-aged men and women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 29: 524-533, 2005.
65. Lorenzo V, Martin M, Rufino M, Sanchez E, Jimenez A, Hernandez D, and Torres A. High prevalence of overweight in a stable Spanish hemodialysis population: a cross sectional study. J Ren Nutr 13: 52-59, 2003.
66. Lovejoy JC. The influence of sex hormones on obesity across the female life span. J Womens Health 7: 1247-1256, 1998.
67. Luke A, Roizen NJ, Sutton M, and Schoeller DA. Energy expenditure in children with Down syndrome: correcting metabolic rate for movement. J Pediatr 125: 829-838, 1994.
68. Manson JE, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Rosner B, Monson RR, Speizer FE, and Hennekens CH. A prospective study of obesity and risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med 322: 882-889, 1990.
69. Matsuda K, Miura T, Kaiya H, Maruyama K, Uchiyama M, Kangawa K, and Shioda S. Stimulatory effect of n-octanoylated ghrelin on locomotor activity in the goldfish, Carassius auratus. Peptides 27: 1335-1340, 2006.
70. Matter S, Weltman A, and Stamford BA. Body fat content and serum lipid levels. J Am Diet Assoc 77: 149-152, 1980.
71. Matthews CE and Freedson PS. Field trial of a three-dimensional activity monitor: comparison with self report. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 1071-1078, 1995.
72. Maxfield E and Konishi F. Patterns of food intake and physical activity in obesity. J Am Diet Assoc 49: 406-408, 1966.
73. Mehlman PT, Westergaard GC, Hoos BJ, Sallee FR, Marsh S, Suomi SJ, Linnoila M, and Higley JD. CSF 5-HIAA and nighttime activity in free-ranging primates. Neuropsychopharmacology 22: 210-218, 2000.
74. Melanson EL Jr and Freedson PS. Validity of the Computer Science and Applications, Inc (CSA) activity monitor. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 934-940, 1995.
75. Nagy TR, Gower BA, Shewchuk RM, and Goran MI. Serum leptin and energy expenditure in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82: 4149-4153, 1997.
76. Nakajima M, Inui A, Teranishi A, Miura M, Hirosue Y, Okita M, Himori N, Baba S, and Kasuga M. Effects of pancreatic polypeptide family peptides on feeding and learning behavior in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 268: 1010-1014, 1994.
77. Nelson KM, Weinsier RL, Long CL, and Schutz Y. Prediction of resting energy expenditure from fat-free mass and fat mass. Am J Clin Nutr 56: 848-856, 1992.
78. Nguyen T, Porter J, and Svec F. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) decreases open-field spontaneous activity of Zucker rats. Physiol Behav 67: 725-731, 1999.
79. 2C receptor mutant mice. Diabetes 52: 315-320, 2003.
80. Oguma Y, Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS Jr, and Lee IM. Physical activity and all cause mortality in women: a review of the evidence. Br J Sports Med 36: 162-172, 2002.
81. Paffenbarger RS Jr, Hyde RT, Wing AL, Lee IM, Jung DL, and Kampert JB. The association of changes in physical-activity level and other lifestyle characteristics with mortality among men. N Engl J Med 328: 538-545, 1993.
82. Pelleymounter MA, Cullen MJ, Baker MB, Hecht R, Winters D, Boone T, and Collins F. Effects of the obese gene product on body weight regulation in ob/ob mice. Science 269: 540-543, 1995.
83. Reed GW and Hill JO. Measuring the thermic effect of food. Am J Clin Nutr 63: 164-169, 1996.
84. Ries W. Feeding behaviour in obesity. Proc Nutr Soc 32: 187-193, 1973.
85. Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Spiegelman D, Colditz GA, and Willett WC. Body size and fat distribution as predictors of coronary heart disease among middle-aged and older US men. Am J Epidemiol 141: 1117-1127, 1995.
86. Rissanen AM, Heliovaara M, Knekt P, Reunanen A, and Aromaa A. Determinants of weight gain and overweight in adult Finns. Eur J Clin Nutr 45: 419-430, 1991.
87. Rosenbaum M, Vandenborne K, Goldsmith R, Simoneau JA, Heymsfield S, Joanisse DR, Hirsch J, Murphy E, Matthews D, Segal KR, and Leibel RL. Effects of experimental weight perturbation on skeletal muscle work efficiency in human subjects. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 285: R183-R192, 2003.
88. Rowland TW. The biological basis of physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30: 392-399, 1998.
89. Salbe AD, Nicolson M, and Ravussin E. Total energy expenditure and the level of physical activity correlate with plasma leptin concentrations in five-year-old children. J Clin Invest 99: 592-595, 1997.
90. Scotellaro PA, Ji LL, Gorski J, and Oscai LB. Body fat accretion: a rat model. Med Sci Sports Exerc 23: 275-279, 1991.
91. Sei M, Sei H, and Shima K. Spontaneous activity, sleep, and body temperature in rats lacking the CCK-A receptor. Physiol Behav 68: 25-29, 1999.
92. Seidell JC, Muller DC, Sorkin JD, and Andres R. Fasting respiratory exchange ratio and resting metabolic rate as predictors of weight gain: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study on Aging. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 16: 667-674, 1992.
93. Shadoan MK, Anthony MS, Rankin SE, Clarkson TB, and Wagner JD. Effects of tibolone and conjugated equine estrogens with or without medroxyprogesterone acetate on body composition and fasting carbohydrate measures in surgically postmenopausal monkeys. Metabolism 52: 1085-1091, 2003.
94. Stefanik PA, Heald FP Jr, and Mayer J. Caloric intake in relation to energy output of obese and non-obese adolescent boys. Am J Clin Nutr 7: 55-62, 1959.
95. Sternfeld B, Bhat AK, Wang H, Sharp T, and Quesenberry CP Jr. Menopause, physical activity, and body composition/fat distribution in midlife women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 37: 1195-1202, 2005.
96. Sternfeld B, Wang H, Quesenberry CP Jr, Abrams B, Everson-Rose SA, Greendale GA, Matthews KA, Torrens JI, and Sowers M. Physical activity and changes in weight and waist circumference in midlife women: findings from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation. Am J Epidemiol 160: 912-922, 2004.
97. St-Pierre DH, Karelis AD, Cianflone K, Conus F, Mignault D, Rabasa-Lhoret R, St-Onge M, Tremblay-Lebeau A, and Poehlman ET. Relationship between ghrelin and energy expenditure in healthy young women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89: 5993-5997, 2004.
98. Sullivan EL, Daniels AJ, Koegler FH, and Cameron JL. Evidence in female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) that nighttime caloric intake is not associated with weight gain. Obes Res 13: 2072-2080, 2005.
99. Swanson CJ, Heath S, Stratford TR, and Kelley AE. Differential behavioral responses to dopaminergic stimulation of nucleus accumbens subregions in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 58: 933-945, 1997.
100. Swanson CJ and Kalivas PW. Regulation of locomotor activity by metabotropic glutamate receptors in the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 292: 406-414, 2000.
101. Tataranni PA, Harper IT, Snitker S, Del Parigi A, Vozarova B, Bunt J, Bogardus C, and Ravussin E. Body weight gain in free-living Pima Indians: effect of energy intake vs expenditure. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27: 1578-1583, 2003.
102. Tchernof A and Poehlman ET. Effects of the menopause transition on body fatness and body fat distribution. Obes Res 6: 246-254, 1998.
103. Thorburn AW and Proietto J. Biological determinants of spontaneous physical activity. Obes Rev 1: 87-94, 2000.
104. Treuth MS, Sherwood NE, Baranowski T, Butte NF, Jacobs DR Jr, McClanahan B, Gao S, Rochon J, Zhou A, Robinson TN, Pruitt L, Haskell W, and Obarzanek E. Physical activity self-report and accelerometry measures from the Girls health Enrichment Multi-site Studies. Prev Med 38, Suppl: S43-S49, 2004.
105. Trost SG, Sirard JR, Dowda M, Pfeiffer KA, and Pate RR. Physical activity in overweight and nonoverweight preschool children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27: 834-839, 2003.
106. Uhe AM, Szmukler GI, Collier GR, Hansky J, O'Dea K, and Young GP. Potential regulators of feeding behavior in anorexia nervosa. Am J Clin Nutr 55: 28-32, 1992.
107. Vardi P and Pinhas-Hamiel O. The young hunter hypothesis: age-related weight gain - a tribute to the thrifty theories. Med Hypotheses 55: 521-523, 2000.
108. Wade GN. Gonadal hormones and behavioral regulation of body weight. Physiol Behav 8: 523-534, 1972.
109. Weinsier RL, Hunter GR, Heini AF, Goran MI, and Sell SM. The etiology of obesity: relative contribution of metabolic factors, diet, and physical activity. Am J Med 105: 145-150, 1998.
110. Willett WC, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner B, Speizer FE, and Hennekens CH. Weight, weight change, and coronary heart disease in women. Risk within the "normal" weight range. JAMA 273: 461-465, 1995.
111. Williams JK, Kaplan JR, Suparto IH, Fox JL, and Manuck SB. Effects of exercise on cardiovascular outcomes in monkeys with risk factors for coronary heart disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23: 864-871, 2003.
112. Williamson DF, Kahn HS, Remington PL, and Anda RF. The 10-year incidence of overweight and major weight gain in US adults. Arch Intern Med 150: 665-672, 1990.
113. Williamson DF, Madans J, Anda RF, Kleinman JC, Kahn HS, and Byers T. Recreational physical activity and ten-year weight change in a US national cohort. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 17: 279-286, 1993.
114. Wilson PW and Kannel WB. Obesity, diabetes, and risk of cardiovascular disease in the elderly. Am J Geriatr Cardiol 11: 119-123,125, 2002.
115. World Health Organization. Obesity: preventing, and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation. In: World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 2000 894: i-xii, 1-253, 2000.
116. Yearick ES. Nutritional status of the elderly: anthropometric and clinical findings. J Gerontol 33: 657-662, 1978.
117. Zhou QY and Palmiter RD. Dopamine-deficient mice are severely hypoactive, adipsic, and aphagic. Cell 83: 1197-1209, 1995.
118. Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Nomura AM, West DW, Wu AH, Pike MC, Lake AJ, Horn-Ross PL, Kolonel LN, Siiteri PK, and Fraumeni JF Jr. Relative weight, weight change, height, and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst 88: 650-660, 1996.