Renal and vascular hypertension-induced inflammation: Role of angiotensin II

Current Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension

Volumn 15, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 159-166

  Ruiz Ortega, Marta ^a,b   Esteban, Vanesa ^a   Rupérez, Mónica ^a   Sánchez López, Elsa ^a   Rodríguez Vita, Juan ^a   Carvajal, Gisselle ^a   Egido, Jesús ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE MADRID   (Spain)

^b Hospital UniversitarioFundación Jiménez Díaz   (Spain)

Author keywords

Angiotensin II; Inflammatory response; Nuclear factor B; Reactive oxygen species

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN 1 RECEPTOR; ANGIOTENSIN 1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANGIOTENSIN 2 RECEPTOR; ANGIOTENSIN 2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANGIOTENSIN II; BRADYKININ; BRADYKININ B2 RECEPTOR; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CHEMOKINE; CYTOKINE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; GUANINE NUCLEOTIDE BINDING PROTEIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 15; INTERLEUKIN 6; MACROPHAGE INFLAMMATORY PROTEIN 1ALPHA; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; NITRIC OXIDE; PADGEM PROTEIN; PARTHENOLIDE; PROSTAGLANDIN; PYRROLIDINE DITHIOCARBAMATE; RANTES; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; RHO FACTOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; VASCULAR CELL ADHESION MOLECULE 1; VASCULOTROPIN;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DIABETES MELLITUS; ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INFLAMMATION; LEUKOCYTE ACTIVATION; NONHUMAN; OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; RENOVASCULAR HYPERTENSION; REVIEW; SPONTANEOUSLY HYPERTENSIVE RAT; THROMBOCYTE ACTIVATION; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM;

ANGIOTENSIN II; CHEMOKINES; CYTOKINES; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTENSION, RENAL; INFLAMMATION; INFLAMMATION MEDIATORS; MALE; PEPTIDYL-DIPEPTIDASE A; RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM; RISK FACTORS; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY;

EID: 33646792585     PISSN: 10624821     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.mnh.0000203190.34643.d4     Document Type: Review

References (94)

1. Suzuki Y, Ruiz-Ortega M, Lorenzo O, et al. Inflammation and angiotensin II. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2003; 35:881-900.
2. Olsen F. Type and course of the inflammatory cellular reaction in acute angiotensin-hypertensive vascular disease in rats. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 1970; 78:143-150.
3. Endemann DH, Schiffrin EL. Endothelial dysfunction. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004; 15:1983-1992.
4. Higashi Y, Chayama K, Yoshizumi M. Angiotensin II type I receptor blocker and endothelial function in humans: role of nitric oxide and oxidative stress. Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents 2005; 3:133-148.
5. Sánchez-López E, López AF, Esteban V, et al. Angiotensin II regulates vascular endothelial growth factor via hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha induction and redox mechanisms in the kidney. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:1275-1284.
6. Zhao Q, Ishibashi M, Hiasa K, et al. Essential role of vascular endothelial growth factor in angiotensin II-induced vascular inflammation and remodeling. Hypertension 2004; 44:264-270. This interesting paper describes a novel role of VEGF in the vascular inflammatory response caused by AngII.
7. El Bekay R, Alvarez M, Monteseirin J, et al. Oxidative stress is a critical mediator of the angiotensin II signal in human neutrophils: involvement of mitogen-activated protein kinase, calcineurin, and the transcription factor NF-κB. Blood 2003; 102:662-671.
8. Dorffel Y, Latsch C, Stuhlmuller B, et al. Preactivated peripheral blood monocytes in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertension 1999; 34:113-117.
9. Ruiz-Ortega M, Lorenzo O, Ruperez M, et al. Systemic infusion of angiotensin II into normal rats activates nuclear factor-κB and AP-1 in the kidney: role of AT(1) and AT(2) receptors. Am J Pathol 2001; 158:1743-1756.
10. Mervaala EM, Muller DN, Park JK, et al. Monocyte infiltration and adhesion molecules in a rat model of high human renin hypertension. Hypertension 1999; 33:389-395.
11. Stumpf C, John S, Jukic J, et al. Enhanced levels of platelet P-selectin and circulating cytokines in young patients with mild arterial hypertension. J Hypertens 2005; 23:995-1000.
12. Alvarez A, Cerda-Nicolas M, Naim Abu Nabah Y, et al. Direct evidence of leukocyte adhesion in arterioles by angiotensin II. Blood 2004; 104:402-408.
13. Nabah YN, Mateo T, Estelles R, et al. Angiotensin II induces neutrophil accumulation in vivo through generation and release of CXC chemokines. Circulation 2004; 110:3581-3586. This paper describes the mechanisms involved in neutrophil activation caused by AngII.
14. Piqueras L, Kubes P, Alvarez A, et al. Angiotensin II induces leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in vivo via AT1 and AT2 receptor-mediated P-selectin upregulation. Circulation 2000; 102:2118-2123.
15. Gasic S, Wagner OF, Fasching P, et al. Fosinopril decreases levels of soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 in borderline hypertensive type II diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. Am J Hypertens 1999; 12:217-222.
16. Schalkwijk CG, Smulders RA, Lambert J, et al. ACE-inhibition modulates some endothelial functions in healthy subjects and in normotensive type 1 diabetic patients. Eur J Clin Invest 2000; 30:853-860.
17. Hlubocka Z, Umnerova V, Heller S, et al. Circulating intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1, endothelin-1 and von Willebrand factor - markers of endothelial dysfunction in uncomplicated essential hypertension: the effect of treatment with ACE inhibitors. J Hum Hypertens 2002; 16:557-562.
18. Rosei EA, Rizzoni D, Muiesan ML, et al. Effects of candesartan, cilexetil and enalapril on inflammatory markers of atherosclerosis in hypertensive patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Hypertension 2005; 23:435-444.
19. Jilma B, Li-Saw-Hee FL, Wagner OF, et al. Effects of enalapril and losartan on circulating adhesion molecules and monocyte chemotactic protein-1. Clin Sci 2002; 103:131-136.
20. Rajagopalan S, Brook R, Mehta RH, et al. Effect of losartan in aging-related endothelial impairment. Am J Cardiol 2002; 89:562-566.
21. Andersen S, Schalkwijk CG, Stehouwer CD, Parving HH. Angiotensin II blockade is associated with decreased plasma leukocyte adhesion molecule levels in diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes Care 2000; 23:1031-1032.
22. Guba M, Steinbauer M, Buchner M, et al. Differential effects of short-term ACE- and AT1-receptor inhibition on postischemic injury and leukocyte adherence in vivo and in vitro. Shock 2000; 13:190-196.
23. Zhou MS, Jaimes EA, Raij L. Inhibition of oxidative stress and improvement of endothelial function by amlodipine in angiotensin II-infused rats. Am J Hypertens 2004; 17:167-171.
24. Chen R, Iwai M, Wu L, et al. Important role of nitric oxide in the effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor imidapril on vascular injury. Hypertension 2003; 42:542-547.
25. Cervenka L, Vaneckova I, Maly J, et al. Genetic inactivation of the B2 receptor in mice worsens two-kidney, one-clip hypertension: role of NO and the AT2 receptor. J Hypertens 2003; 21:1531-1538.
26. Tsutsumi Y, Matsubara H, Masaki H, et al. Angiotensin II type 2 receptor overexpression activates the vascular kinin system and causes vasodilation. J Clin Invest 1999; 104:925-935.
27. Sainz IM, Uknis AB, Isordia-Salas I, et al. Interactions between bradykinin (BK) and cell adhesion molecule (CAM) expression in peptidoglycan-polysaccharide (PG-PS)-induced arthritis. FASEB J 2004; 18:887-889.
28. Willerson JT, Ridker PM. Inflammation as a cardiovascular risk factor. Circulation 2004; 109:112-1110.
29. Bautista LE, Vera LM, Arenas IA, Gamarra G. Independent association between inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and TNF-alpha) and essential hypertension. Hum Hypertens 2005; 19:149-154.
30. Leibowitz D, Planer D, Ben-Ivgi F, et al. Tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 levels in hypertensive patients with and without left ventricular hypertrophy. Blood Press 2005; 14:21-24.
31. Kaibe M, Ohishi M, Ito N, et al. Serum interleukin-15 concentration in patients with essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2005; 18:1019-1025.
32. Li QZ, Deng Q, Li JQ, et al. Valsartan reduces interleukin-1 beta secretion by peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with essential hypertension. Clin Chim Acta 2005; 355:131-136.
33. Vazquez-Oliva G, Fernandez-Real JM, Zamora A, et al. Lowering of blood pressure leads to decreased circulating interleukin-6 in hypertensive subjects. J Hum Hypertens 2005; 19:457-462.
34. Fliser D, Buchholz K, Haller H. EUropean Trial on Olmesartan and Pravastatin in Inflammation and Atherosclerosis (EUTOPIA) Investigators. Antiinflammatory effects of angiotensin II subtype 1 receptor blockade in hypertensive patients with microinflammation. Circulation 2004; 110:1103-1117.
35. Ruiz-Ortega M, Ruperez M, Lorenzo O, et al. Angiotensin II regulates the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the kidney. Kidney Int 2002; 82:12-22.
36. Sato H, Watanabe A, Tanaka T, et al. Regulation of the human tumor necrosis factor-alpha promoter by angiotensin II and lipopolysaccharide in cardiac fibroblasts: different cis-acting promoter sequences and transcriptional factors. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2003; 35:1197-1205.
37. Sanz-Rosa D, Cediel E, de las Heras N, et al. Participation of aldosterone in the vascular inflammatory response of spontaneously hypertensive rats: role of the NFkappaB/IkappaB system. J Hypertens 2005; 23:1167-1172.
38. Brasier AR, Recinos A III, Eledrisi MS. Vascular inflammation and the renin-angiotensin system. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22:1257-1266.
39. Ni W, Kitamoto S, Ishibashi M, et al. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 is an essential inflammatory mediator in angiotensin II-induced progression of established atherosclerosis in hypercholesterolemic mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24:534-539.
40. Ishibashi M, Egashira K, Zhao Q, et al. Bone marrow-derived monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 receptor CCR2 is critical in angiotensin II-induced acceleration of atherosclerosis and aneurysm formation in hypercholesterolemic mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24:e174-e178. This original paper describes the importance of MCP-1 and its receptor in AngII-induced vascular damage.
41. Kumai Y, Ooboshi H, Takada J, et al. Anti-monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 gene therapy protects against focal brain ischemia in hypertensive rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2004; 24:1359-1368.
42. Hartner A, Veelken R, Wittmann M, et al. Effects of diabetes and hypertension on macrophage infiltration and matrix expansion in the rat kidney. BMC Nephrol 2005; 6:6.
43. deBlois D, Lombardi DM, Su EJ, et al. Angiotensin II induction of osteopontin expression and DNA replication in rat arteries. Hypertension 1996; 28:1055-1063.
44. Bruemmer D, Collins AR, Noh G, et al. Angiotensin II-accelerated atherosclerosis and aneurysm formation is attenuated in osteopontin-deficient mice. J Clin Invest 2003; 112:1318-1331.
45. Wolf G, Ziyadeh FN, Thaiss F, et al. Angiotensin II stimulates expression of the chemokine RANTES in rat glomerular endothelial cells. Role of the angiotensin type 2 receptor. J Clin Invest 1997; 100:1047-1058.
46. Suzuki Y, Gomez-Guerrero C, Shirato I, et al. Susceptibility to T cell-mediated injury in immune complex disease is linked to local activation of renin-angiotensin system: the role of NF-AT pathway. J Immunol 2002; 169: 4136-4146.
47. Kainer DB, Doris PA. Cyclophilin B expression in renal proximal tubules of hypertensive rats. Hypertension 2000; 35:958-964.
48. Esteban V, Lorenzo O, Ruperez M, et al. Angiotensin II, via AT1 and AT2 receptors and NF-kappaB pathway, regulates the inflammatory response in unilateral ureteral obstruction. J Am Soc Nephrol: JASN 2004; 15:1514-1529. This original paper describes the importance of the blockade of both AT1 and AT2 receptors as well as the inhibition of the NF-κB pathway to stop the inflammatory response in the kidney.
49. Esteban V, Ruperez M, Vita JR, et al. Effect of simultaneous blockade of AT1 and AT2 receptors on the NFkappaB pathway and renal inflammatory response. Kidney Int Suppl 2003; 86:S33-S38.
50. Wolf G, Schneider A, Helmchen UM, Stahl RA. AT1-receptor antagonists abolish glomerular MCP-1 expression in a model of mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis. Exp Nephrol 1998; 6:112-120.
51. Morrissey JJ, Klahr S. Differential effects of ACE and AT1 receptor inhibition on chemoattractant and adhesion molecule synthesis. Am J Physiol 1998; 274:F580-F586.
52. Parissis JT, Venetsanou KF, Mentzikof DG, et al. Plasma levels of soluble cellular adhesion molecules in patients with arterial hypertension. Correlations with plasma endothelin-1. Eur J Intern Med 2001; 12:350-356.
53. Deo R, Khera A, McGuire DK, et al. Association among plasma levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, traditional cardiovascular risk factors, and subclinical atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44:1812-1818.
54. Nomura S, Shouzu A, Omoto S, et al. Effects of losartan and simvastatin on monocyte-derived microparticles in hypertensive patients with and without type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2004; 10:133-141.
55. Damas JK, Otterdal K, Yndestad A, et al. Soluble CD40 ligand in pulmonary arterial hypertension: possible pathogenic role of the interaction between platelets and endothelial cells. Circulation 2004; 110:999-1005.
56. Constantinescu CS, Goodman DB, Ventura ES. Captopril and lisinopril suppress production of interleukin-12 by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Immunol Lett 1998; 62:25-31.
57. Lindmark E, Siegbahn A. Tissue factor regulation and cytokine expression in monocyte-endothelial cell co-cultures. Effects of a statin, an ACE-inhibitor and a low-molecular-weight heparin. Thromb Res 2002; 108: 77-84.
58. Shao J, Nangaku M, Miyata T, et al. Imbalance of T-cell subsets in angiotensin II-infused hypertensive rats with kidney injury. Hypertension 2003; 42:31-38.
59. Touyz RM. Reactive oxygen species as mediators of calcium signaling by angiotensin II: implications in vascular physiology and pathophysiology. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:1302-1314. An excellent and comprehensive review of the redox mechanisms regulated by AngII.
60. Ohtsu H, Frank GD, Utsunomiya H, Eguchi S. Redox-dependent protein kinase regulation by angiotensin II: mechanistic insights and its pathophysiology. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:1315-1326. Another excellent and comprehensive review of the redox mechanisms regulated by AngII.
61. Tanifuji C, Suzuki Y, Geot WM, et al. Reactive oxygen species-mediated signaling pathways in angiotensin II-induced MCP- expression of proximal tubular cells. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:1261-1268.
62. Zalba G, Jose GS, Moreno MU, et al. NADPH oxidase-mediated oxidative stress: genetic studies of the p22(phox) gene in hypertension. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:1327-1336.
63. Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Vaziri ND, Herrera-Acosta J, Johnson R. Oxidative stress, renal infiltration of immune cells, and salt-sensitive hypertension: all for one and one for all. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2004; 286:F606-F616.
64. Mezzano S, Aros C, Droguett A, et al. NF-kappaB activation and overexpression of regulated genes in human diabetic nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2004; 19:2505-2512. This original paper described renal activation of NF-κB and related genes associated with AngII production in a renal disease in humans.
65. Yamakawa T, Tanaka S, Numaguchi K, et al. Involvement of Rho-kinase in angiotensin II-induced hypertrophy of rat vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension 2000; 35:313-318.
66. Matrougui K, Tanko LB, Loufrani L, et al. Involvement of Rho-kinase and the actin filament network in angiotensin II-induced contraction and extracellular signal-regulated kinase activity in intact rat mesenteric resistance arteries. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001; 21:1288-1293.
67. Uehata M, Ishizaki T, Satoh H, et al. Calcium sensitization of smooth muscle mediated by a Rho-associated protein kinase in hypertension. Nature 1997; 389:990-994.
68. Funakoshi Y, Ichiki T, Shimokawa H, et al. Rho-kinase mediates angiotensin II-induced monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression in rat vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension 2000; 38:100-104.
69. Rupérez M, Sánchez-López E, Blanco-Colio ML, et al. The Rho-kinase pathway regulates AngII-induced renal damage. Kidney Int 2005; 68 (in press).
70. Kanda T, Wakino S, Hayashi K, et al. Effect of fasudil on Rho-kinase and nephropathy in subtotally nephrectomized spontaneously hypertensive rats. Kidney Int 2003; 64:2009-2019.
71. Satoh S, Yamaguchi T, Hitomi A, et al. Fasudil attenuates interstitial fibrosis in rat kidneys with unilateral ureteral obstruction. Eur J Pharmacol 2002; 455:169-174.
72. Seko T, Ito M, Kureishi Y, et al. Activation of RhoA and inhibition of myosin phosphatase as important components in hypertension in vascular smooth muscle. Circ Res 2003; 92:411-418.
73. Mukai Y, Shimokawa H, Matoba T, et al. Involvement of Rho-kinase in hypertensive vascular disease: a novel therapeutic target in hypertension. FASEB J 2001; 15:1062-1064.
74. Muller DN, Dechend R, Mervaala EM, et al. NF-κB inhibition ameliorates angiotensin II-induced inflammatory damage in rats. Hypertension 2000; 35:193-201.
75. Hernández-Presa MA, Bustos C, Ortego M, et al. ACE inhibitor quinapril reduces the arterial expression of NF-kappaB-dependent proinflammatory factors but not of collagen I in a rabbit model of atherosclerosis. Am J Pathol 1998; 153:1825-1837.
76. Braiser AR, Meng T, Jamaluddin M, et al. Angiotensin II induces nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB1 isoforms to bind the angiotensinogen gene acute-phase response element: a stimulus-specific pathway for NF-kappaB activation. Mol Endocrinol 2000; 14:99-113.
77. Ruiz-Ortega M, Bustos C, Hernandez-Presa MA, et al. Angiotensin II participates in mononuclear cell recruitment in experimental immune complex nephritis through nuclear factor-kappa B activation and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 synthesis. J Immunol 1998; 161:430-439.
78. Kranzhofer R, Browatzki M, Schmidt J, Kubler W. Angiotensin II activates the proinflammatory transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB in human monocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 257:826-828.
79. Han Y, Runge MS, Brasier AR. Angiotensin II induces interleukin-6 transcription in vascular smooth muscle cells through pleiotropic activation of nuclear factor-kappa B transcription factors. Circ Res 1999; 84:695-703.
80. Ruiz-Ortega M, Lorenzo O, Ruperez M, et al. Role of AT1 and AT2 receptors in angiotensin II induced nuclear transcription factor-κB activation in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res 2000; 86:1266-1272.
81. Pueyo ME, Gonzalez W, Nicoletti A, et al. Angiotensin II stimulates endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 via nuclear factor-kappaB activation induced by intracellular oxidative stress. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000; 20:645-651.
82. Rouet-Benzineb P, Gontero B, Dreyfus P, Lafuma C. Angiotensin II induces nuclear factor-kappa B activation in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes through protein kinase C signaling pathway. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2000; 32:1767-1778.
83. Ruiz-Ortega M, Lorenzo O, Ruperez M, et al. Angiotensin II activates nuclear transcription factor-kappaB in aorta of normal rats and in vascular smooth muscle cells of AT1 knockout mice. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001; 16 (Suppl 1):27-33.
84. Wolf G, Wenzel U, Burns KD, et al. Angiotensin II activates nuclear transcription factor-κB through AT1 and AT2 receptors. Kidney Int 2002; 61:1986-1995.
85. Costanzo A, Moretti F, Burgio VL, et al. Endothelial activation by angiotensin II through NFkappaB and p38 pathways: involvement of NFkappaB-inducible kinase (NIK), free oxygen radicals, and selective inhibition by aspirin. J Cell Physiol 2003; 195:402-410.
86. Reinecke K, Lucius R, Reinecke A, et al. Angiotensin II accelerates functional recovery in the rat sciatic nerve in vivo: role of the AT2 receptor and the transcription factor NF-kappaB. FASEB J 2003; 17:2094-2096.
87. Lorenzo O, Ruiz-Ortega M, Suzuki Y, et al. Angiotensin III activates nuclear transcription factor-κB in cultured mesangial cells mainly via AT2 receptors. Studies in AT1 receptor-knockout mice. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13:1162-1171.
88. Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Ferrebuz A, Vanegas V, et al. Early and sustained inhibition of nuclear factor-κB prevents hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005; 315:51-57.
89. Ferreira AJ, Santos RA, Braz J. Cardiovascular actions of angiotensin-(1-7). Med Biol Res 2005; 38:499-507.
90. Ruiz-Ortega M, Lorenzo O, Egido J. Angiotensin III increases MCP-1 and activates NF-kappaB and AP-1 in cultured mesangial and mononuclear cells. Kidney Int 2000; 57:2285-2298.
91. Esteban V, Ruperez M, Sanchez-Lopez E, et al. Angiotensin IV activates the nuclear transcription factor-κB and related proinflammatory genes in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res 2005; 96:965-973. This novel paper shows that the angiotensin degradation peptide, AngIV, via its specific receptor AT4, could participate in the inflammatory response in the vasculature.
92. Ruiz-Ortega M, Ruperez M, Esteban V, Egido J. Molecular mechanisms of angiotensin II-induced vascular injury. Curr Hypertens Rep 2003; 5:73-79.
93. Wolf G, Ritz E. Combination therapy with ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers to halt progression of chronic renal disease: pathophysiology and indications. Kidney Int 2005; 67:799-812. This interesting review discusses the rationale for the use of combined therapies in progressive renal disease.
94. Osende JI, Ruiz-Ortega M, Blanco-Colio LM, Egido J. Statins to prevent cardiovascular events in hypertensive patients. The ASCOT-LLA study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2004; 19:528-531.