Stem cell transplantation in myocardial infarction

Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 82-98

  Lee, Michael S ^a   Lill, Michael ^b   Makkar, Raj R ^b  

^a Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Coronary angioplasty; Myocardial generation; Myocardial infarction; Stem cells

Indexed keywords

8 QUINOLINOL INDIUM IN 111; AZACITIDINE; GRANULOCYTE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; NEUROHORMONE; STEM CELL FACTOR; STROMAL CELL DERIVED FACTOR 1; VASCULOTROPIN;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; CARDIOMYOPLASTY; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL MIGRATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL REGENERATION; CLINICAL STUDY; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; CORONARY ARTERY BYPASS GRAFT; DATA ANALYSIS; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DONOR; EMBRYO CELL; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; FETUS CELL; GERIATRIC PATIENT; HEART ASSIST DEVICE; HEART CATHETERIZATION; HEART INFARCTION; HEART MUSCLE CELL; HEART VENTRICLE REMODELING; HORMONE ACTION; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION; MESENCHYME CELL; MICROINJECTION; MYOBLAST; NON INVASIVE MEASUREMENT; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PLURIPOTENT STEM CELL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; TRANSLUMINAL CORONARY ANGIOPLASTY;

CLINICAL TRIALS; HEART; HUMANS; MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION; REGENERATION; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION;

EID: 3042625950     PISSN: 15306550     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Cohn JN, Bristow MR, Chien KR, et al. Report of the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute special emphasis panel on heart failure research. Circulation. 1997;95:766-770.
2. Olivetti G, Capasso JM, Megs LG, et al. Cellular basis of chronic ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction in rats. Circ Res. 1991;68:856-869.
3. Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E. Ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction: experimental observations and clinical implications. Circulation. 1990;81:1161-1172.
4. Grogan M, Redfield MM, Bailey KR, et al. Long-term outcome of patients with biopsy-proved myocarditis: comparison with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26:80-84.
5. American Heart Association. 2000 Heart and Stroke Statistical Update. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association; 2001.
6. O'Connell JB, Bristow MR. Economic impact of heart failure in the United States: time for a different approach. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1994:13:S107-S112.
7. Califf RM, Adams KF, McKenna WJ, et al. A randomized controlled trial of epoprostenol therapy for severe congestive heart failure: the Flolan International Randomized Trial (FIRST). Am Heart J. 1997;134:44-54.
8. Nelissen-Vrancken H, Debets J, Snoeckx L. Time-related normalization of maximal coronary flow in isolated perfused hearts of rats with myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1996; 93:349-355.
9. Beltrami AP, Urbanek K, Kaistura J, et al. Evidence that human cardiac myocytes divide after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1750-1757.
10. Ravichandran LV, Puvanakrishnan R. In vivo labeling studies on the biosynthesis and degradation of collagen in experimental myocardial infarction. Biochem Int. 1991; 24:405-414.
11. Braunwald E, Pfeffer MA. Ventricular enlargement and remodeling following acute myocardial infarction: mechanisms and management. Am J Cardiol. 1991;68:1-6D.
12. Hochman JS, Choo H. Limitation of myocardial infarct expansion by reperfusion independent of myocardial salvage. Circulation. 1987;75:299-306.
13. Nidorf SM, Siu SC, Galambos G, et al. Benefit of late coronary reperfusion on ventricular morphology and function after myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;20:307-313.
14. Kocher AA. Bone marrow-derived stem cells for ischemic hearts. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2003;115:77-79.
15. Bishop AE, Buttery L, Polak JM. Embryonic stem cells. J Pathol. 2002;197:424-429.
16. Semsarian C. Stem cells in cardiovascular disease: from cell biology to clinical therapy. Intern Med J. 2002;32:259-265.
17. Orlic D, Kajstura J, Chimenti S, et al. Mobilized bone marrow cells repair the infarcted heart, improving function and survival. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98:10344-10349.
18. Welch S, Plank D, Witt S, et al. Cardiac-specific IGF-1 expression attenuates dilated cardiomyopathy in tropomodulin-overexpressing transgenic mice. Circ Res. 2002;90:641-648.
19. Semsarian C, Wu MJ, Ju YK, et al. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy is mediated by a Ca2+ dependent calcineurin signaling pathway. Nature. 1999;400:576-581.
20. Rosenthal N. Prometheus's vulture and the stem-cell promise. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:267-274.
21. Hardy CL. The homing of hematopoietic stem cells to the bone marrow. Am J Med Sci. 1995; 309:260-266.
22. Perin EC, Geng YJ, Willerson JT. Adult stem cell therapy in perspective. Circulation. 2003; 107:935-938.
23. Caplice NM, Gersh BJ. Stem cells to repair the heart: a clinical perspective. Circ Res. 2003; 92:6-8.
24. Britten MB, Abolmaali ND, Assmus B, et al. Infarct remodeling after intracoronary progenitor cell treatment in patients with acute myocardial infarction (TOPCARE-AMI): mechanistic insights from serial contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation. 2003;108:2212-2218.
25. Banai S, Shweiki D, Pinson A, et al. Upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor expression induced by myocardial ischaemia: implications for coronary angiogenesis. Cardiovasc Res. 1994;28:1176-1179.
26. Brogi E, Schatterman G, Wu T, et al. Hypoxia-induced paracrine regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor expression. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:469-476.
27. Lee SH, Wolf PL, Escuderc, R, et al. Early expression of angiogenesis factors in acute myocardial ischemia and infarction. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:626-633.
28. Pillarisetti K, Gupta SK. Cloning and relative expression analysis of rat stromal cell derived factor-1 (SDF-1): SDF-1 alpha mRNA is selectively induced in rat model of myocardial infarction. Inflammation. 2001;25:293-300.
29. Dengler TJ, Katus HA. Stem cell therapy for the infarcted heart ("cellular cardiomyoplasty"). Herz. 2002;27:598-610.
30. Musil LS, Le A-CN, Van Slyke JK, et al. Regulation of connexin degradation as a mechanism to increase gap junction assembly and function. J Biol Chem. 2000;275:25207-25215.
31. Soonpaa MH, Koh GY, Klug MG, Field LJ. Formation of nascent intercalated disks between grafted fetal cardiomyocytes and host myocardium. Science. 1994;264:98-101.
32. Leor J, Patterson M, Quinones MJ, et al. Transplantation of fetal myocardial tissue into the infarcted myocardium of rat: a potential method of repair for infarcted myocardium? Circulation. 1996;94(suppl II):II332-II336.
33. Scorsin M, Marotte F, Sabri A, et al. Can grafted cardiomyocytes colonize peri-infarct myocardial area? Circulation. 1996;94(suppl II):II337-II340.
34. Li RK, Jia ZQ, Weisel RD, et al. Cardiomyocyte transplantation improves heart function. Ann Thorac Surg. 1996;62:654-661.
35. Etzion S, Battler A, Barbash IM, et al. Influence of embryonic cardiomyocyte transplantation on the progression of heart failure in rat model of extensive myocardial infarction. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2001;33:1321-1330.
36. Li RK, Mickle DAG, Weisel RD, et al. Human pediatric and adult ventricular cardiomyocytes in culture: assessment of phenotypic changes with passing. Cardiovasc Res. 1996;32:362-373.
37. Van Meter CH, Claycomb WC, Delcarpio JB, et al. Myoblast transplantation in the porcine model: a potential technique for myocardial repair. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1995;110:1442-1448.
38. Li RK, Mickle DAG, Weisel RD, et al. The natural history of fetal rat cardiomyocytes transplanted into adult rat myocardial scar tissue. Circulation. 1997;96(suppl II):II179-II187.
39. Koh GY, King MG, Soonpaa MH, et al. Differentiation and long-term survival of C2C12 myoblast grafts in heart. J Clin Invest. 1993;92:1548-1554.
40. Chin RC, Zibaitis A, Kao RL. Cellular cardiomyoplasty: myocardial regeneration with satellite cell implantation. Ann Thorac Surg. 1995;60:12-18.
41. Allen RE, Rankin LL. Regulation of satellite cells during skeletal muscle growth and development. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1990;194:81-86.
42. Leor J, Prentice H, Sartorelli V, et al. Gene transfer and cell transplant: an experimental approach to repair a "broken heart." Cardiovasc Res. 1997;35:431-441.
43. Jain M, DerSimonian H, Brenner DA, et al. Cell therapy attenuates deleterious ventricular remodeling and improves cardiac performance after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2001;103:1920-1927.
44. Ghostine S, Carrion C, Souza LCG, et al. Long-term efficacy of myoblast transplantation on regional structure and function after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2002;106(suppl I):I131-I136.
45. Pouzet B, Vilquin JT, Hagége AA, et al. Intramyocardial transplantation of autologous myoblasts: can tissue processing be optimized? Circulation. 2000;102(suppl III):III210-III215.
46. Robinson SW, Cho PW, Levitsky HI, et al. Arterial delivery of genetically labeled skeletal myoblasts to the murine heart: long-term survival and phenotypic modification of implanted myoblasts. Cell Transplant. 1996; 5:77-91
47. Taylor DA, Atkins BZ, Hungsreugs P, et al. Regenerating functional myocardium: improved performance after skeletal myoblast transplantation. Nature Med. 1998;4:929-933.
48. Menasché P, Hagége AA, Vilquin JT, et al. Autologous skeletal myoblast transplantation for severe postinfarction left ventricular dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:1078-1083.
49. Pagani FP, DerSimonian H, Zawadzka A, et al. Autologous skeletal myoblasts transplanted to ischemia-damaged myocardium in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:879-888.
50. Tomita S, Li RK, Weisel RD, et al. Autologous transplantation of bone marrow cells improves damaged heart function. Circulation. 1999; 100(suppl II):II247-II256.
51. Shintani S, Murohara T, Ikeda H, et al. Mobilization of endothelial progenitor cells in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2001;103:2776-2779.
52. Asahara T, Masuda H, Takahashi T, et al. Bone marrow origin of endothelial progenitor cells responsible for postnatal vasculogenesis in physiological and pathological neovascularization. Circ Res. 1999;85:221-228.
53. Takahashi T, Kalka C, Masuda H, et al. Ischemia- and cytokine-induced mobilization of bone marrow-derived endothelial progenitor cells for neovascularization. Nat Med. 1999;5:434-438.
54. Kawamoto A, Gwon HC, Iwaguro H, et al. Therapeutic potential of ex vivo expanded endothelial progenitor cells for myocardial ischemia. Circulation. 2001;103:634-647.
55. Kocher AA, Schuster MD, Szabolcs MJ, et al. Neovascularization of ischemic myocardium by human bone-marrow-derived angioblasts prevents cardiomyocytes apoptosis, reduces remodeling and improves cardiac function. Nat Med. 2001;7:430-436.
56. Condorelli G, Borello U, DeAngelis L, et al. Cardiomyocytes induce endothelial cells to trans-differentiate into cardiac muscle: implications for myocardium regeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98:10733-10738.
57. Badorff C, Brandes RP, Popp R, et al. Transdifferentiation of blood-derived human adult endothelial progenitor cells into functionally active cardiomyocytes. Circulation. 2003;107:1024-1032.
58. Szilvassy SJ, Bass MJ, Van Zant G, Grimes B. Organ-selective homing defines engraftment kinetics of murine hematopoietic stem cells and is compromised by ex vivo expansion. Blood. 1999;93:1557-1566.
59. Vasa M, Fichtlscherer S, Adler K, et al. Increase in circulating endothelial progenitor cells by statin therapy in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2001;103:2885-2890.
60. Eliceiri BP, Cheresh DA. The role of alpha v integrins during angiogenesis: insights into potential mechanisms of actions and clinical development. J Clin Invest. 1999;103:1227-1230.
61. Fuchs S, Baffour R, Zhou YF, et al. Transendocardial delivery of autologous bone marrow enhances collateral perfusion and regional function in pigs with chronic experimental myocardial ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:1726-1732.
62. Orlic D, Hill J, Arai AE. Stem cells for myocardial regeneration. Circ Res. 2002;91:1092-1102.
63. Hescheler J, Fleischman BK. Indispensable tools: embryonic stem cells yield insights into the human heart. J Clin Invest. 2001;108:363-364.
64. Kehat I, Kenyagin-Karsenti D, Snir M, et al. Human embryonic stem cells can differentiate into myocytes with structural and functional properties of cardiomyocytes. J Clin Invest. 2001;108:407-414.
65. Min JY, Yang Y, Converso KL, et al. Transplantation of embryonic stem cells improves cardiac function in postinfarcted rats. J Appl Physiol. 2002;92:288-296.
66. Yang Y, Min JY, Rana JS, et al. VEGF enhances functional improvement of postinfarcted hearts by transplantation of ESC-differentiated cells. J Appl Physiol. 2002;93:1140-1151.
67. Ferrari G, Cusella-De Angelis G, Coletta, M et al. Muscle regeneration by bone marrow-derived myogenic progenitors. Science. 1998;279:1528-1530.
68. Wang JS, Shum-Tim D, Galipeau J, et al. Marrow stromal cells for cellular cardiomyoplasty: feasibility and potential clinical advantages. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2002;120:999-1005.
69. Makino S, Fukuda K, Miyoshi S, et al. Cardiomyocytes can be generated from marrow stromal cells in vitro. J Clin Invest. 1999;103:697-705.
70. Toma C, Pittenger MF, Cahill KS, et al. Human mesenchymal stem cells differentiate to a cardiomyocyte phenotype in the adult murine heart. Circulation. 2002;105:93-98.
71. Pittenger MF, Mackay AM, Beck SC, et al. Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells. Science. 1999;284:143-147.
72. Shake JG, Gruber PJ, Baumgartner WA, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell implantation in a swine myocardial infarct model: engraftment and functional effects. Ann Thorac Surg. 2002; 73:1919-1925.
73. Makkar RR, Price MJ, Lill M, et al. Multilineage differentiation of transplanted allogenic mesenchymal stem cells injected in a porcine model of recent myocardial infarction improves left ventricular function [abstract]. Circulation. 2002;106:II34.
74. Qayyum MS, Takizawa K, Frantzen M, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell therapy prevents deterioration of left ventricular function in a porcine myocardial infarction model [abstract]. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39:169A.
75. Min JY, Sullivan MF, Yang Y, et al. Significant improvement of heart function by cotransplantation of human mesenchymal stem cells and fetal cardiomyocytes in postinfarcted pigs. Ann Thorac Surg. 2002;74:1568-1575.
76. Martin BJ, Shake JG, Brawn J, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell implantation improves regional function in infarcted swine myocardium [abstract]. Circulation. 2000; 102:II682.
77. Lai AC, Wallner K, Cao JM, et al. Colocalization of tenascin and sympathetic nerves in a canine model of nerve sprouting and sudden cardiac death. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2000;11:1345-1351.
78. Joester A, Faissner A, The structure and function of tenascins in the nervous system. Matrix Biol. 2001;20:13-22.
79. Probstmeier R, Nellen J, Gloor S, et al. Tenascin-R is expressed by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. J Neurosci Res. 2001;64:70-78.
80. Yamamoto K, Dang QN, Kennedy SP, et al. Induction of tenascin-C in cardiac myocytes by mechanical deformation. Role of reactive oxygen species. J Biol Chem. 1999;274:21840-21846.
81. Wallner K, Li C, Shah PK, et al. Tenascin-C is expressed in macrophage-rich human coronary atherosclerotic plaque. Circulation. 1999;99:1284-1289.
82. Cowan KN, Jones PL, Rabinovitch M. Regression of hypertrophied rat pulmonary arteries in organ culture is associated with suppression of proteolytic activity, inhibition of tenascin-C, and smooth muscle cell apoptosis. Circ Res. 1999;84:1223-1233.
83. Gassler N, Rastar F, Hentz MW. Angiogenesis and expression of tenascin after transmural laser revascularization. Histol Histopathol. 1999;14:81-87.
84. Wallner K, Sharifi BG, Shah PK, et al. Adventitial remodeling after angioplasty is associated with expression of tenascin mRNA by adventitial myofibroblasts. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:655-661.
85. Pak HN, Qayyum M, Kim DT, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell injection induces cardiac nerve sprouting and increased tenascin expression in a swine model of myocardial infarction. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2003; 14:841-848.
86. Pogwizd SM, Schlotthauer K, Li L, et al. Arrhythmogenesis and contractile dysfunction in heart failure: roles of sodium-calcium exchange, inward rectifier potassium current, and residual beta-adrenergic responsiveness. Circ Res. 2001;88:1159-1167.
87. Martins JB, Zipes DB. Effects of sympathetic and vagal nerves on recovery properties of the endocardium and epicardium of the canine left ventricle. Circ Res. 1980;46:100-110.
88. Opthof T, Ramdat Misier AR, Coronel R, et al. Dispersion of refractoriness in canine ventricular myocardium. Effects of sympathetic stimulation. Circ Res. 1991;68:1204-1215.
89. Cao JM, Fishbein MC, Han JB, et al. Relationship between regional cardiac hyperinnvervation and ventricular arrhythmia. Circulation. 2000;101:1960-1969.
90. Cao JM, Chen LS, KenKnight BH, et al. Nerve sprouting and sudden cardiac death. Circ Res. 2000;86:816-821.
91. Rangappa S, Fen C, Lee EH, et al. Transformation of adult mesenchymal stem cells isolated from the fatty tissue into cardiomyocytes. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;75:775-779.
92. Orlic D, Kajstura J, Chimenti S, et al. Bone marrow cells regenerate infarcted myocardium. Nature. 2001;410:701-705.
93. Tse HF, Kwong YL, Chan J, et al. Angiogenesis in ischaemic myocardium by intramyocardial autologous bone marrow mononuclear cell implantation. Lancet. 2003;361:47-49.
94. Perin EC, Silva GV, Sarmento-Leite R, et al. Assessing myocardial viability and infarct transmurality with left ventricular electromechanical mapping in patients with stable coronary artery disease: validation by delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation. 2002;106:957-961.
95. Wolf T, Gepstein L, Dror U, et al. Detailed endocardial mapping accurately predicts the transmural extent of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:1590-1597.
96. Strauer BE, Brehm M, Zeus T, et al. Repair of infarcted myocardium by autologous intracoronary mononuclear bone marrow cell transplantation in humans. Circulation. 2002; 106:1913-1918.
97. Assmus B, Schachinger V, Teupe C, et al. Transplantation of progenitor cells and regeneration enhancement in acute myocardial infarction (TOPCARE-AMI). Circulation. 2002; 106:3009-3017.
98. Link DC. Mechanisms of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor-induced hematopoietic progenitor-cell mobilization. Semin Hematol. 2000;37:25-32.
99. Levesque JP, Takamatsu Y, Nilsson SK, et al. Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (CD106) is cleaved by neutrophil proteases in the bone marrow following hematopoietic progenitor cell mobilization by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. Blood. 2001;98;1289-1297.
100. Hamano K, Nishida M, Hirata K, et al. Local implantation of autologous bone marrow cells for therapeutic angiogenesis in patients with ischemic heart disease: clinical trial and preliminary results. Jpn Circ J. 2001;65:845-847
101. Hagége AA, Carrion C, Menasché P, et al. Viability and differentiation of autologous skeletal myoblast grafts in ischaemic cardiomyopathy. Lancet. 2003:361:491-492.
102. Stamm C, Westphal B, Hans-Dieter K, et al. Autologous bone-marrow stem-cell transplantation for myocardial regeneration. Lancet. 2003;361:45-46.
103. Perin EC, Dohmann H, Borojevic R, et al. Transendocardial, autologous bone marrow cell transplantation for severe, chronic ischemic heart failure. Circulation. 2003;107:2294-2302.
104. American Heart Association. Wollert KC, Meyer GP, Lotz J, et al. Bone Marrow Transfer to Enhance ST-Elevation Infarct Regeneration (BOOST) trial. Late Breaking Clinical Trials. American Heart Association; 2003.
105. Brehm M, Zeus T, Köstering M, et al. Angiogenesis and myogenesis after intracoronary transplantation of autologous bone marrow cells in patients with acute myocardial infarction [abstract]. Circulation. 2003;108:1929.
106. Smits PC, van Geuns RJ, Poldermans D, et al. Catheter-based intramyocardial injection of autologous skeletal myoblasts as a primary treatment of ischemic heart failure. J Am Cardiol. 2003;42:2063-2069.
107. Kraitchman DL, Heldman AW, Atalar E, et al. In vivo magnetic resonance imaging of mesenchymal stem cells in myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2003;107:2290-2293.
108. Ruehm SG, Carot C, Vogt P, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of atherosclerotic plaque with ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide in hyperlipidemic rabbits. Circulation. 2001;103:415-422.
109. Garot J, Unterseeh T, Teiger E, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of targeted catheter-based implantation of myogenic precursor cells into infarcted left ventricular myocardium. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:1841-1846.
110. Lederman RJ, Guttman MA, Peters DC, et al. Catheter-based endomyocardial injection with real-time magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation. 2002;105:1282-1284.
111. Aicher A, Brenner W, Zuhayra M, et al. Assessment of the tissue distribution of transplanted human endothelial progenitor cells by radioactive labeling. Circulation. 2003;107:2134-2139.
112. Becker W, Meller J. The role of nuclear medicine in infection and inflammation. Lancet Infect Dis. 2001;1:326-333.
113. Hughes S. Cardiac stem cells. J Pathol. 2002;197:468-478.
114. Jiang Y, Jahagirdar BN, Reinhardt RL, et al. Pluripotency of mesenchymal stem cells derived from adult marrow. Nature. 2002; 418:41-49.
115. Rafii S, Lyden D. Therapeutic stem and progenitor cell transplantation for organ vascularization and regeneration. Nat Med. 2003; 9:702-712.
116. Frangogiannis NG, Smith CW, Entman ML. The inflammatory response in myocardial infarction. Cardiovasc Res. 2002;53:31-47.
117. Li RK, Mickle DA, Weisel RD, et al. Optimal time for cardiomyocyte transplantation to maximize myocardial function after left ventricular injury. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001;72:1957-1963.
118. Yeh ET, Zhang S, Wu HD, et al. Transdifferentiation of human peripheral blood CD34+-enriched cell population into cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells in vivo. Circulation. 2003;108:2070-2073.
119. Zhang YM, Hartzell C, Narlow M, Dudley SC. Stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes demonstrate arrhythmic potential. Circulation. 2002; 106:1294-1299.
120. Makkar RR, Lill M, Chen PS. Stem cell therapy for myocardial repair: is it arrhythmogenic? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:2070-2072.