Role of morphogens in neural crest cell determination

Journal of Neurobiology

Volumn 64, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 388-404

  Jones, Natalie C ^a   Trainor, Paul A ^a  

^a STOWERS INSTITUTE FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP); Craniofacial development; Fibroblast growth factor (FGF); Induction; Migration; Morphogen; Neural crest cells; Retinoic acid; Sonic hedgehog (Shh); Wingless INT related (Wnt)

Indexed keywords

BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN; FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR; FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR 2; FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR 8; MORPHOGEN; RETINOIC ACID; WNT PROTEIN;

CELL MIGRATION; CRANIOFACIAL DEVELOPMENT; EMBRYO; EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT; EVOLUTION; MORPHOGENESIS; NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT; NEURAL CREST; NEURAL CREST CELL; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

AMPHIBIA; ANIMALS; BIRDS; BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEINS; CELL MOVEMENT; FISHES; HEDGEHOG PROTEINS; HUMANS; INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS; MAMMALS; NEURAL CREST; RETINOIDS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SPECIES SPECIFICITY; TRANS-ACTIVATORS;

EID: 23444439816     PISSN: 00223034     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/neu.20162     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Abu-Issa R, Smyth G, Smoak I, Yamamura K, Meyers EN. 2002. Fgf8 is required for pharyngeal arch and cardiovascular development in the mouse. Development 129: 4613-4625.
2. Ahlgren SC, Bronner-Fraser M. 1999. Inhibition of sonic hedgehog signaling in vivo results in craniofacial neural crest cell death. Curr Biol 9:1304-1314.
3. Akitaya T, Bronner-Fraser M. 1992. Expression of cell adhesion molecules during initiation and cessation of neural crest cell migration. Dev Dyn 194:12-20.
4. Baroffio A, Dupin E, Le Douarin N. 1988. Clone-forming ability and differentiative potential of migratory neural crest cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 85:5325-5329.
5. Basler K, Edlund T, Jessell TM, Yamada T. 1993. Control of cell pattern in the neural tube: regulation of cell differentiation by dorsalin-1, a novel TGF beta family member. Cell 73:687-702.
6. Bonstein L, Elias S, Frank D. 1998. Paraxial-fated mesoderm is required for neural crest induction in Xenopus embryos. Dev Biol 193:156-168.
7. Brault V, Moore R, Kutsch S, Ishibashi M, Rowitch DH, McMahon AP, Sommer L, Boussadia O, Kemler R. 2001. Inactivation of the beta-catenin gene by Wntl-Cremediated deletion results in dramatic brain malformation and failure of craniofacial development. Development 128:1253-1264.
8. Bronner-Fraser M, Fraser S. 1988. Cell lineage analysis reveals multipotency of some avian neural crest cells. Nature 335:161-164.
9. Bronner-Fraser M, Fraser S. 1989. Developmental potential of avian trunk neural crest cells in situ. Neuron 3:755-766.
10. Cano A, Perez-Moreno MA, Rodrigo I, Locascio A, Blanco MJ, del Barrio MG, Portillo F, Nieto MA. 2000. The transcription factor snail controls epithelial-mesenchymal transitions by repressing E-cadherin expression. Nat Cell Biol 2:76-83.
11. Carl TF, Dufton C, Hanken J, Klymkowsky MW. 1999. Inhibition of neural crest migration in Xenopus using antisense slug RNA. Dev Biol 213:101-115.
12. Chang C, Hemmati-Brivanlou A. 1998. Neural crest induction by Xwnt7B in Xenopus. Dev Biol 194:129-134.
13. Coles E, Christiansen J, Economou A, Bronner-Fraser M, Wilkinson DG. 2004. A vertebrate crossveinless 2 homologue modulates BMP activity and neural crest cell migration. Development 131:5309-5317.
14. Collazo A, Bronner-Fraser M, Fraser SE. 1993. Vital dye labelling of Xenopus laevis trunk neural crest reveals multipotency and novel pathways of migration. Development 118:363-376.
15. Cornell RA, Eisen JS. 2002. Delta/Notch signaling promotes formation of zebrafish neural crest by repressing Neurogenin 1 function. Development 129:2639-2648.
16. Deardorff MA, Tan C, Saint-Jeannet JP, Klein PS. 2001. A role for frizzled 3 in neural crest development. Development 128:3655-3663.
17. del Barrio MG, Nieto MA. 2002. Overexpression of Snail family members highlights their ability to promote chick neural crest formation. Development 129:1583-1593.
18. Dickinson ME, Selleck MA, McMahon AP, Bronner-Fraser M. 1995. Dorsalization of the neural tube by the non-neural ectoderm. Development 121:2099-2106.
19. Dorsky RI, Moon RT, Raible DW. 1998. Control of neural crest cell fate by the Wnt signalling pathway. Nature 396:370-373.
20. Dudas M, Sridurongrit S, Nagy A, Okazaki K, Kaartinen V. 2004. Craniofacial defects in mice lacking BMP type I receptor Alk2 in neural crest cells. Mech Dev 121:173-182.
21. Endo Y, Osumi N, Wakamatsu Y. 2002. Bimodal functions of Notch-mediated signaling are involved in neural crest formation during avian ectoderm development. Development 129:863-873.
22. Erickson CA, Perris R. 1993. The role of cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions in the morphogenesis of the neural crest. Dev Biol 159:60-74.
23. Ferguson CA, Graham A. 2004. Redefining the head-trunk interface for the neural crest. Dev Biol 269:70-80.
24. Fraser SE, Bronner-Fraser M. 1991. Migrating neural crest cells in the trunk of the avian embryo are multipotent. Development 112:913-920.
25. Fu M, Lui VC, Sham MH, Pachnis V, Tam PK. 2004. Sonic hedgehog regulates the proliferation, differentiation, and migration of enteric neural crest cells in gut. J Cell Biol 166:673-684.
26. Gale E, Zile M, Maden M. 1999. Hindbrain respecification in the retinoid-deficient quail. Mech Dev 89:43-54.
27. Garcia-Castro MI, Marcelle C, Bronner-Fraser M. 2002. Ectodermal Wnt function as a neural crest inducer. Science 297:848-851.
28. Gavalas A. 2002. ArRAnging the hindbrain. Trends Neurosci 25:61-64.
29. Glavic A, Silva F, Aybar MJ, Bastidas F, Mayor R. 2004. Interplay between Notch signaling and the homeoprotein Xiro1 is required for neural crest induction in Xenopus embryos. Development 131:347-359.
30. Graham A, Francis-West P, Brickell P, Lumsden A. 1994. The signalling molecule BMP4 mediates apoptosis in the rhombencephalic neural crest. Nature 372:684-686.
31. Gray H. 1989. Gray's anatomy. New York: Churchill Livingstone.
32. Hall B, Horstadius S. 1988. The neural crest. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
33. Hall BK. 2000. The neural crest as a fourth germ layer and vertebrates as quadroblastic not triploblastic. Evol Dev 2:3-5.
34. Hari L, Brault V, Kleber M, Lee HY, Ille F, Leimeroth R, Paratore C, Suter U, Kemler R, Sommer L. 2002. Lineage-specific requirements of beta-catenin in neural crest development. J Cell Biol 159:867-880.
35. Hasegawa S, Sato T, Akazawa H, Okada H, Maeno A, Ito M, Sugitani Y, Shibata H, Miyazaki Ji J, Katsuki M. Yamauchi Y, Yamamura Ki K, Katamine S, Noda T. 2002. Apoptosis in neural crest cells by functional loss of APC tumor suppressor gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:297-302.
36. Hay ED. 1995. An overview of epithelio-mesenchymal transformation. Acta Anat (Basel) 154:8-20.
37. Heldin CH, Ostman A, Ronnstrand L. 1998. Signal transduction via platelet-derived growth factor receptors. Biochim Biophys Acta 1378:F79-F113.
38. Ho L, Symes K, Yordan C, Gudas LJ, Mercola M. 1994. Localization of PDGF A and PDGFR alpha mRNA in Xenopus embryos suggests signalling from neural ectoderm and pharyngeal endoderm to neural crest cells. Mech Dev 48:165-174.
39. Ikeya M, Lee SM, Johnson JE, McMahon AP, Takada S. 1997. Wnt signalling required for expansion of neural crest and CNS progenitors. Nature 389:966-970.
40. Inoue T, Chisaka O, Matsunami H, Takeichi M. 1997. Cadherin-6 expression transiently delineates specific rhombomeres, other neural tube subdivisions, and neural crest subpopulations in mouse embryos. Dev Biol 183: 183-194.
41. Jiang R, Lan Y, Norton CR, Sundberg JP, Gridley T. 1998. The Slug gene is not essential for mesoderm or neural crest development in mice. Dev Biol 198:277-285.
42. Johnston MC. 1966. A radioautographic study of the migration and fate of cranial neural crest cells in the chick embryo. Anat Rec 156:143-156.
43. Kanzler B, Foreman RK, Labosky PA, Mallo M. 2000. BMP signaling is essential for development of skeletogenic and neurogenic cranial neural crest. Development 127:1095-1104.
44. Kirby ML, Gale TF, Stewart DE. 1983. Neural crest cells contribute to normal aorticopulmonary septation. Science 220:1059-1061.
45. Kirby ML, Stewart DE. 1983. Neural crest origin of cardiac ganglion cells in the chick embryo: identification and extirpation. Dev Biol 97:433-443.
46. Knecht AK, Bronner-Fraser M. 2002. Induction of the neural crest: a multigene process. Nat Rev Genet 3:453-461.
47. Kubota Y, Ito K. 2000. Chemotactic migration of mesencephalic neural crest cells in the mouse. Dev Dyn 217:170-179.
48. LaBonne C, Bronner-Fraser M. 1998. Neural crest induction in Xenopus: evidence for a two-signal model. Development 125:2403-2414.
49. LaBonne C, Bronner-Fraser M. 2000. Snail-related transcriptional repressers are required in Xenopus for both the induction of the neural crest and its subsequent migration. Dev Biol 221:195-205.
50. Lammer E, Chen D, Hoar R, Agnish A, Benke P, Braun J, Curry C, Femhoff P, Grix A, Lott I, Richard J, Sun S. 1985. Retinoic acid embryopathy. N Engl J Med 313: 837-841.
51. Le Douarin N, Teillet M-A. 1974. Experimental analysis of the migration and differentiation of neuroblasts of the autonomie nervous system and of neurectodermal mesenchymal derivatives, using a biological cell marking technique. Dev Biol 41:162-184.
52. Le Douarin NM. 1982. The neural crest. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
53. Le Douarin NM, Kalcheim C. 1999. The neural crest. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
54. Lee HY, Kleber M, Hari L, Brault V, Suter U, Taketo MM, Kemler R, Sommer L. 2004. Instructive role of Wnt/beta-catenin in sensory fate specification in neural crest stem cells. Science 303:1020-1023.
55. Lee K, Jessell T. 1999. The specification of dorsal cell fates in the vertebrate central nervous system. Ann Rev Neurosci 22:261-294.
56. Lee YM, Osumi-Yamashita N, Ninomiya Y, Moon CK, Eriksson U, Eto K. 1995. Retinoic acid stage-dependently alters the migration pattern and identity of hindbrain neural crest cells. Development 121:825-837.
57. Lewis JL, Bonner J. Modrell M, Ragland JW, Moon RT, Dorsky RI, Raible DW. 2004. Reiterated Wnt signaling during zebrafish neural crest development. Development 131:1299-1308.
58. Li J, Molkentin JD, Colbert MC. 2001. Retinoic acid inhibits cardiac neural crest migration by blocking c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation. Dev Biol 232:351-361.
59. Liem KF Jr, Tremml G, Jessell TM. 1997. A role for the roof plate and its resident TGFbeta-related proteins in neuronal patterning in the dorsal spinal cord. Cell 91:127-138.
60. Liem KF Jr, Tremml G, Roelink H, Jessell TM. 1995. Dorsal differentiation of neural plate cells induced by BMP-mediated signals from epidermal ectoderm. Cell 82:969-979.
61. Liu JP, Jessell TM. 1998. A role for rhoB in the delamination of neural crest cells from the dorsal neural tube. Development 125:5055-5067.
62. Lumsden A, Sprawson N, Graham A. 1991. Segmental origin and migration of neural crest cells in the hindbrain region of the chick embryo. Development 113:1281-1291.
63. Mancilla A, Mayor R. 1996. Neural crest formation in Xenopus laevis: mechanisms of Xslug induction. Dev Biol 177:580-589.
64. Marchant L, Linker C, Ruiz P, Guerrero N, Mayor R. 1998. The inductive properties of mesoderm suggest that the neural crest cells are specified by a BMP gradient. Dev Biol 198:319-329.
65. Martinez S, Crossley PH, Cobos I, Rubenstein JL, Martin GR. 1999. FGF8 induces formation of an ectopic isthmic organizer and isthmocerebellar development via a repressive effect on Otx2 expression. D1evelopment 126:1189-1200
66. Mayor R, Guerrero N, Martinez C. 1997. Role of FGF and noggin in neural crest induction. Dev Biol 189:1-12.
67. Mayor R, Morgan R, Sargent MG. 1995. Induction of the prospective neural crest of Xenopus. Development 121:767-777.
68. Monsoro-Burq AH, Fletcher RB, Harland RM. 2003. Neural crest induction by paraxial mesoderm in Xenopus embryos requires FGF signals. Development 130:3111-3124.
69. Morgan R, Sargent MG. 1997. The role in neural patterning of translation initiation factor eIF4AII; induction of neural fold genes. Development 124:2751-2760.
70. Morin-Kensicki EM, Melancon E, Eisen JS. 2002. Segmental relationship between somites and vertebral column in zebrafish. Development 129:3851-3860.
71. Morrison-Graham K, Schatteman GC, Bork T, Bowen-Pope DF, Weston JA. 1992. A PDGF receptor mutation in the mouse (Patch) perturbs the development of a non-neuronal subset of neural crest-derived cells. Development 115: 133-142.
72. Moury JD, Jacobson AG. 1990. The origins of neural crest cells in the axolot1. Dev Biol 141:243-253.
73. Mulder GB, Manley N, Maggio-Price L. 1998. Retinoic acid-induced thymic abnormalities in the mouse are associated with altered pharyngeal morphology, thymocyte maturation defects, and altered expression of Hoxa3 and Pax1. Teratology 58:263-275.
74. Nakagawa S, Takeichi M. 1995. Neural crest cell-cell adhesion controlled by sequential and subpopulation-specific expression of novel cadherins. Development 121:1321-1332.
75. Nakagawa S, Takeichi M. 1998. Neural crest emigration from the neural tube depends on regulated cadherin expression. Development 125:2963-2971.
76. Nguyen VH, Schmid B, Trout J, Connors SA, Ekker M, Mullins MC. 1998. Ventral and lateral regions of the zebrafish gastrula, including the neural crest progenitors, are established by a bmp2b/swirl pathway of genes. Dev Biol 199:93-110.
77. Nichols DH. 1986. Formation and distribution of neural crest mesenchyme to the first pharyngeal arch region of the mouse embryo. Am J Anat 176:221-231.
78. Niederreither K, Vermot J, Messaddeq N, Schuhbaur B, Chambon P, Dolle P. 2001. Embryonic retinoic acid synthesis is essential for heart morphogenesis in the mouse. Development 128:1019-1031.
79. Nieto MA, Sargent MG, Wilkinson DG, Cooke J. 1994. Control of cell behavior during vertebrate development by slug, a zinc finger gene. Science 264:835-839.
80. Noden DM. 1975. An analysis of migratory behavior of avian cephalic neural crest cells. Dev Biol 42:105-130.
81. Northcutt RG, Gans C. 1983. The genesis of neural crest and epidermal placodes: a reinterpretation of vertebrate origins. Q Rev Biol 58:1-28.
82. Orr-Urtreger A, Bedford MT, Do MS, Eisenbach L, Lonai P. 1992. Developmental expression of the alpha receptor for platelet-derived growth factor, which is deleted in the embryonic lethal Patch mutation. Development 115:289-303.
83. Osumi-Yamashita N, Ninomiya Y, Doi H, Eto K. 1994. The contribution of both forebrain and midbrain crest cells to the mesenchyme in the frontonasal mass of mouse embryos. Dev Biol 164:409-419.
84. Pettway Z, Guillory G, Bronner-Fraser M. 1990. Absence of neural crest cells from the region surrounding implanted notochords in situ. Dev Biol 142:335-345.
85. Pratt RM, Goulding EH, Abbott BD. 1987. Retinoic acid inhibits migration of cranial neural crest cells in the cultured mouse embryo. J Craniofac Genet Dev Biol 7:205-217.
86. Ragland JW, Raible DW. 2004. Signals derived from the underlying mesoderm are dispensable for zebrafish neural crest induction. Dev Biol 276:15-30.
87. Raven CP, Kloos J. 1945. Induction by medial and lateral pieces of the archenteron roof with special reference to the determination of the neural crest. Acta Neerl Morphol 5:348-396.
88. Rickmann M, Fawcett JW, Keynes RJ. 1985. The migration of neural crest cells and the growth of motor axons through the rostral half of the chick somite. J Exp Morph Embryol 90:437-455.
89. Rosenquist GC. 1981. Epiblast origin and early migration of neural crest cells in the chick embryo. Dev Biol 87:201-211.
90. Saint-Jeannet JP, He X, Varmus HE, Dawid IB. 1997. Regulation of dorsal fate in the neuraxis by Wnt-1 and Wnt-3a. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94:13713-13718.
91. Schatteman GC, Morrison-Graham K, van Koppen A, Weston JA, Bowen-Pope DF. 1992. Regulation and role of PDGF receptor alpha-subunit expression during embryogenesis. Development 115:123-131.
92. Schatteman GC, Motley ST, Effmann EL, Bowen-Pope DF. 1995. Platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha subunit deleted Patch mouse exhibits severe cardiovascular dysmorphogenesis. Teratology 51:351-366.
93. Schilling TF, Kimmel CB. 1994. Segment and cell type lineage restrictions during pharyngeal arch development in the zebrafish embryo. Development 120:483-494.
94. Schneider RA, Hu D, Rubenstein JL, Maden M, Helms JA. 2001. Local retinoid signaling coordinates forebrain and facial morphogenesis by maintaining FGF8 and SHH. Development 128:2755-2767.
95. Schubert FR, Mootoosamy RC, Walters EH, Graham A, Tumiotto L, Munsterberg AE, Lumsden A, Dietrich S. 2002. Wnt6 marks sites of epithelial transformations in the chick embryo. Mech Dev 114:143-148.
96. Sela-Donenfeld D, Kalcheim C. 1999. Regulation of the onset of neural crest migration by co-ordinated activity of BMP4 and noggin inthe dorsal neural tube. Development 126:4749-4762.
97. Selleck MA, Bronner-Fraser M. 1995. Origins of the avian neural crest: the role of neural plate-epidermal interactions. Development 121:525-538.
98. Selleck MA, Garcia-Castro MI, Artinger KB, Bronner-Fraser M. 1998. Effects of Shh and Noggin on neural crest formation demonstrate that BMP is required in the neural tube but not ectoderm. Development 125:4919-4930.
99. Serbedzija G, Fraser S, Bronner-Fraser M. 1992. Vital dye analysis of cranial neural crest cell migration in the mouse embryo. Development 116:297-307.
100. Shah NM, Anderson DJ. 1997. Integration of multiple instructive cues by neural crest stem cells reveals cell-intrinsic biases in relative growth factor responsiveness. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94:11369-11374.
101. Smith A, Graham A. 2001. Restricting Bmp-4 mediated apoptosis in hindbrain neural crest. Dev Dyn 220:276-283.
102. Smith KK. 2001. Early development of the neural plate, neural crest and facial region of marsupials. J Anat 199: 121-131.
103. Soriano P. 1997. The PDGF alpha receptor is required for neural crest cell development and for normal patterning of the somites. Development 124:2691-2700.
104. Stemple DL, Anderson DJ. 1992. Isolation of a stem cell for neurons and glia from the mammalian neural crest. Cell 71:973-985.
105. Stern CD. 2001. Initial patterning of the central nervous system: how many organizers? Nat Rev Neurosci 2:92-98.
106. Stottmann RW, Choi M, Mishina Y, Meyers EN, Klingensmith J. 2004. BMP receptor IA is required in mammalian neural crest cells for development of the cardiac outflow tract and ventricular myocardium. Development 131:2205-2218.
107. Sukegawa A, Narita T, Kameda T, Saitoh K, Nohno T, Iba H, Yasugi S, Fukuda K. 2000. The concentric structure of the developing gut is regulated by Sonic hedgehog derived from endodermal epithelium. Development 127:1971-1980.
108. Tan SS, Morriss-Kay G. 1985. The development and distribution of the cranial neural crest in the rat embryo. Cell Tissue Res 240:403-416.
109. Testaz S, Jarov A, Williams KP, Ling LE, Koteliansky VE, Foumier-Thibault C, Duband JL. 2001. Sonic hedgehog restricts adhesion and migration of neural crest cells independently of the Patched- Smoothened-Gli signaling pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:12521-12526.
110. Thorogood P, Smith L, Nicol A, McGinty R, Garrod D. 1982. Effects of vitamin A on the behaviour of migratory neural crest cells in vitro. J Cell Sci 57:331-350.
111. Tosney K. 1982. The segregation and early migration of cranial neural crest cells in the avian embryo. Dev Biol 89:13-24.
112. Trainor P, Bronner-Fraser M, Krumlauf R. 2004. Neural crest cells: development and patterning of an embryonic stem cell population. In: Lanza G et al., editors. Handbook of stem cells: embryonic stem cells. Boston: Elsevier/Academic Press, p 219-232.
113. Trainor P, Krumlauf R. 2002. Development. Riding the crest of the Wnt signaling wave. Science 297:781-783.
114. Trainor PA, Tam PPL. 1995. Cranial paraxial mesoderm and neural crest of the mouse embryo-codistribution in the craniofacial mesenchyme but distinct segregation in the branchial arches. Development 121:2569-2582.
115. Trentin A, Glavieux-Pardanaud C, Le Douarin NM, Dupin E. 2004. Self-renewal capacity is a widespread property of various types of neural crest precursor cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:4495-4500.
116. Tribulo C, Aybar MJ, Nguyen VH, Mullins MC, Mayor R. 2003. Regulation of Msx genes by a Bmp gradient is essential for neural crest specification. Development 130:6441-6452.
117. Trokovic N, Trokovic R, Mai P, Partanen J. 2003. Fgfr1 regulates patterning of the pharyngeal region. Genes Dev 17:141-153.
118. Trumpp A, Depew MJ, Rubenstein JL, Bishop JM, Martin GR. 1999. Cre-mediated gene inactivation demonstrates that FGF8 is required for cell survival and patterning of the first branchial arch. Genes Dev 13:3135-3148.
119. Vallin J, Thuret R, Giacomello E, Faraldo MM, Thiery JP, Broders F. 2001. Cloning and characterization of three Xenopus slug promoters reveal direct regulation by Lef/beta-catenin signaling. J Biol Chem 276:30350-30358.
120. Villanueva S, Glavic A, Ruiz P, Mayor R. 2002. Posteriorization by FGF, Wnt, and retinoic acid is required for neural crest induction. Dev Biol 241:289-301.
121. von Baer KE. 1828. Entwicklungsgeschichte der Thiere: Beobachtung und Reflexion. Borntrager, Konigsberg.
122. Wendling O, Ghyselinck NB, Chambon P, Mark M. 2001. Roles of retinoic acid receptors in early embryonic morphogenesis and hindbrain patterning. Development 128: 2031-2038.
123. Wiley MJ, Cauwenbergs P, Taylor IM. 1983. Effects of retinoic acid on the development of the facial skeleton in hamsters: early changes involving cranial neural crest cells. Acta Anat (Basel) 116:180-192.
124. Wilke TA, Gubbels S, Schwartz J, Richman JM. 1997. Expression of fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR3) in the developing head and face. Dev Dyn 210:41-52.
125. Yntema CL, Hammond WS. 1954. The origin of intrinsic ganglia of trunk viscera from vagal neural crest in the chick embryo. J Comp Neurol 101:515-541.
126. Young HM, Hearn CJ, Farlie PG, Canty AJ, Thomas PQ, Newgreen DF. 2001. GDNF is a chemoattractant for enteric neural cells. Dev Biol 229:503-516.