Modeling metastasis in vivo

Carcinogenesis

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 513-523

  Khanna, Chand ^a   Hunter, Kent ^a  

^a NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BRAIN CANCER; BREAST CANCER; CANCER; CANCER CELL CULTURE; DOG; EXPERIMENTAL MODEL; HEAD AND NECK CARCINOMA; IN VIVO STUDY; LUNG CARCINOMA; MELANOMA; METASTASIS; NEUROBLASTOMA; NONHODGKIN LYMPHOMA; NONHUMAN; OSTEOSARCOMA; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; PROSTATE CANCER; REVIEW; RHABDOMYOSARCOMA; SOFT TISSUE SARCOMA; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; XENOGRAFT; ANIMAL; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; CANCER TRANSPLANTATION; HUMAN;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NEOPLASM METASTASIS; NEOPLASM TRANSPLANTATION;

EID: 16244367163     PISSN: 01433334     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgh261     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Fidler, I.J. (2002) The organ microenvironment and cancer metastasis. Differentiation, 70, 498-505.
2. Bangma, C.H., Nasu, Y., Ren, C. and Thompson, T.C. (1999) Metastasis-related genes in prostate cancer. Semin. Oncol., 26, 422-427.
3. Fidler, I.J. (2003) The pathogenesis of cancer metastasis: the 'seed and soil' hypothesis revisited. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 3, 453-458.
4. Muraoka, R.S., Dumont, N., Ritter, C.A., Dugger, T.C., Brantley, D.M., Chen, J., Easterly, E., Roebuck, L.R., Ryan, S., Gotwals, P.J., Koteliansky, V. and Arteaga, C.L. (2002) Blockade of TGF-beta inhibits mammary tumor cell viability, migration, and metastases. J. Clin. Invest., 109, 1551-1559.
5. Marco, R.A., Diaz-Montero, C.M., Wygant, J.N., Kleinerman, E.S. and McIntyre, B.W. (2003) Alpha 4 integrin increases anoikis of human osteosarcoma cells. J. Cell. Biochem., 88, 1038-1047.
6. Chambers, A.F., Naumov, G.N., Vantyghem, S.A. and Tuck, A.B. (2000) Molecular biology of breast cancer metastasis. Clinical implications of experimental studies on metastatic inefficiency. Breast Cancer Res., 2, 400-407.
7. Wong, C.W., Song, C., Grimes, M.M., Fu, W., Dewhirst, M.W., Muschel, R.J. and Al-Mehdi, A.B. (2002) Intravascular location of breast cancer cells after spontaneous metastasis to the lung. Am. J. Pathol., 161, 749-753.
8. Wang, H., Fu, W., Im, J.H., Zhou, Z., Santoro, S.A., Iyer, V., DiPersio, C.M., Yu, Q.C., Quaranta, V., Al-Mehdi, A. and Muschel, R.J. (2004) Tumor cell α3/β1 integrin and vascular laminin-5 mediate pulmonary arrest and metastasis. J. Cell. Biol., 164, 935-941.
9. Khanna, C., Wan, X., Bose, S., Cassaday, R., Olomu, O., Mendoza, A., Yeung, C., Gorlick, R., Hewitt, S.M. and Helman, L.J. (2004) The membrane-cytoskeleton linker ezrin is necessary for osteosarcoma metastasis. Nat. Med., 10, 182-186.
10. Al-Mehdi, A.B., Tozawa, K., Fisher, A.B., Shientag, L., Lee, A. and Muschel, R.J. (2000) Intravascular origin of metastasis from the proliferation of endothelium-attached tumor cells: a new model for metastasis. Nat. Med., 6, 100-102.
11. Chambers, A.F., Schmidt, E.E., MacDonald, I.C., Morris, V.L. and Groom, A.C. (1992) Early steps in hematogenous metastasis of B16F1 melanoma cells in chick embryos studied by high-resolution intravital videomicroscopy. J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 84, 797-803.
12. Jackson, T.L. and Byrne, H.M. (2002) A mechanical model of tumor encapsulation and transcapsular spread. Math. Biosci., 180, 307-328.
13. Herzig, M. and Christofori, G. (2002) Recent advances in cancer research: mouse models of tumorigenesis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1602, 97-113.
14. Huang, M.S., Wang, T.J., Liang, C.L., Huang, H.M., Yang, I.C., Yi-Jan, H. and Hsiao, M. (2002) Establishment of fluorescent lung carcinoma metastasis model and its real-time microscopic detection in SCID mice. Clin. Exp. Metastasis, 19, 359-368.
15. Jenkins, D.E., Yu, S.F., Hornig, Y.S., Purchio, T. and Contag, P.R. (2003) In vivo monitoring of tumor relapse and metastasis using bioluminescent PC-3 M-luc-C6 cells in murine models of human prostate cancer. Clin. Exp. Metastasis, 20, 745-756.
16. Takayama, S. (1968) Induction of transplantable liver tumors in DBF mice after oral administration of N,N′-2,7-fluorenylenebisacetamide. J. Natl Cancer Inst., 40, 629-641.
17. Brown, K., Buchmann, A. and Balmain, A. (1990) Carcinogen-induced mutations in the mouse c-Ha-ras gene provide evidence of multiple pathways for tumor progression. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 87, 538-542.
18. Double, J.A., Ball, C.R. and Cowen, P.N. (1975) Transplantation of adenocarcinomas of the colon in mice. J. Natl Cancer Inst., 54, 271-275.
19. Gonzalez, F.J. and Kimura, S. (2001) Understanding the role of xenobiotic-metabolism in chemical carcinogenesis using gene knockout mice. Mutat. Res., 477, 79-87.
20. De Wever, O. and Mareel, M. (2003) Role of tissue stroma in cancer cell invasion. J. Pathol, 200, 429-447.
21. Schmidt-Hansen, B., Klingelhofer, J., Grum-Schwensen, B., Christensen, A., Andresen, S., Kruse, C., Hansen, T., Ambartsumian, N., Lukanidin, E. and Grigorian, M. (2004) Functional significance of metastasis-inducing S100A4(Mts1) in tumor-stroma interplay. J Biol Chem., 279, 24498-24504.
22. Cooper, C.R., Chay, C.H., Gendernalik, J.D., Lee, H.L., Bhatia, J., Taichman, R.S., McCauley, L.K., Keller, E.T. and Pienta, K.J. (2003) Stromal factors involved in prostate carcinoma metastasis to bone. Cancer, 97, 739-747.
23. Clarke, R. (1996) Human breast cancer cell line xenografts as models of breast cancer. The immunobiologies of recipient mice and the characteristics of several tumorigenic cell lines. Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 39, 69-86.
24. Garofalo, A., Chirivi, R.G., Scanziani, E., Mayo, J.G., Vecchi, A. and Giavazzi, R. (1993) Comparative study on the metastatic behavior of human tumors in nude, beige/nude/xid and severe combined immunodeficient mice. Invasion Metastasis, 13, 82-91.
25. Mueller, B.M. and Reisfeld, R.A. (1991) Potential of the seid mouse as a host for human tumors. Cancer Metastasis Rev., 10, 193-200.
26. Takizawa, Y., Saida, T., Tokuda, Y., Dohi, S., Wang, Y.L., Urano, K., Hioki, K. and Ueyama, Y. (1997) New immunodeficient (nude-scid, beige-scid) mice as excellent recipients of human skin grafts containing intraepidermal neoplasms. Arch. Dermatol. Res., 289, 213-218.
27. Sikder, H., Huso, D.L., Zhang, H., Wang, B., Ryu, B., Hwang, S.T., Powell, J.D. and Alani, R.M. (2003) Disruption of Id1 reveals major differences in angiogenesis between transplanted and autochthonous tumors. Cancer Cell, 4, 291-299.
28. Alani, R.M., Silverthorn, C.F. and Orosz, K. (2004) Tumor angiogenesis in mice and men. Cancer Biol Ther, 3, 498-500.
29. Johnson, J.I., Decker, S., Zaharevitz, D., Rubinstein, L.V., Venditti, J.M., Schepartz, S., Kalyandrug, S., Christian, M., Arbuck, S., Hollingshead, M. and Sausville, E.A. (2001) Relationships between drug activity in NCI preclinical in vitro and in vivo models and early clinical trials. Br. J. Cancer, 84, 1424-1431.
30. Holleran, J.L., Miller, C.J., Edgehouse, N.L., Pretlow, T.P. and Culp, L.A. (2002) Differential experimental micrometastasis to lung, liver, and bone with lacZ-tagged CWR22R prostate carcinoma cells. Clin. Exp. Metastasis, 19, 17-24.
31. Iwakawa, M., Ando, K., Ohkawa, H., Koike, S. and Chen, Y.J. (1994) A murine model for bone marrow metastasis established by an i.v. injection of C-1300 neuroblastoma in A/J mice. Clin. Exp. Metastasis, 12, 231-237.
32. Nanni, P., De Giovanni, C., Nicoletti, G., Del Re, B., Scotlandi, K. and Lollini, P.L. (1989) Human rhabdomyosarcoma cells in nude mice as a model for metastasis and differentiation. Invasion Metastasis, 9, 231-241.
33. Bogenmann, E. (1996) A metastatic neuroblastoma model in SCID mice. Int. J. Cancer, 67, 379-385.
34. Fidler, I.J. and Nicolson, G.L. (1976) Organ selectivity for implantation survival and growth of B16 melanoma variant tumor lines. J. Natl Cancer Inst., 57, 1199-1202.
35. Fidler, I.J. and Nicolson, G.L. (1977) Fate of recirculating B16 melanoma metastatic variant cells in parabiotic syngeneic recipients. J. Natl Cancer Inst., 58, 1867-1872.
36. Fidler, I.J. and Kripke, M.L. (1977) Metastasis results from preexisting variant cells within a malignant tumor. Science, 197, 893-895.
37. Poste, G., Doll, J., Hart, I.R. and Fidler, I.J. (1980) In vitro selection of murine B16 melanoma variants with enhanced tissue-invasive properties. Cancer Res., 40, 1636-1644.
38. Karpatkin, S. and Pearlstein, E. (1981) Role of platelets in tumor cell metastases. Ann. Intern. Med., 95, 636-641.
39. Chambers, A.F., Naumov, G.N., Varghese, H.J., Nadkarni, K.V., MacDonald, I.C. and Groom, A.C. (2001) Critical steps in hematogenous metastasis: an overview. Surg. Oncol. Clin. N. Am., 10, 243-255, vii.
40. Yamamoto, N., Yang, M., Jiang, P., Xu, M., Tsuchiya, H., Tomita, K., Moossa, A.R. and Hoffman, R.M. (2003) Determination of clonality of metastasis by cell-specific color-coded fluorescent-protein imaging. Cancer Res., 63, 7785-7790.
41. Tan, M.H., Holyoke, E.D. and Goldrosen, M.H. (1977) Murine colon adenocarcinoma: syngeneic orthotopic transplantation and subsequent hepatic metastases. J. Natl Cancer Inst., 59, 1537-1544.
42. Fidler, I.J., Naito, S. and Pathak, S. (1990) Orthotopic implantation is essential for the selection, growth and metastasis of human renal cell cancer in nude mice [corrected]. Cancer Metastasis Rev., 9, 149-165.
43. An, Z., Wang, X., Geller, J., Moossa, A.R. and Hoffman, R.M. (1998) Surgical orthotopic implantation allows high lung and lymph node metastatic expression of human prostate carcinoma cell line PC-3 in nude mice. Prostate, 34, 169-174.
44. Nagamachi, Y., Tani, M., Shimizu, K., Tsuda, H., Niitsu, Y. and Yokota, J. (1998) Orthotopic growth and metastasis of human non-small cell lung carcinoma cell injected into the pleural cavity of nude mice. Cancer Lett., 127, 203-209.
45. Killion, J.J., Radinsky, R. and Fidler, I.J. (1998) Orthotopic models are necessary to predict therapy of transplantable tumors in mice. Cancer Metastasis Rev., 17, 279-284.
46. Hoffman, R.M. (1999) Orthotopic metastatic mouse models for anticancer drug discovery and evaluation: a bridge to the clinic. Invest. New Drugs, 17, 343-359.
47. Bibby, M.C. (2004) Orthotopic models of cancer for preclinical drug evaluation: advantages and disadvantages. Eur. J. Cancer, 40, 852-857.
48. Khanna, C., Prehn, J., Yeung, C., Caylor, J., Tsokos, M. and Helman, L. (2000) An orthotopic model of murine osteosarcoma with clonally related variants differing in pulmonary metastatic potential. Clin. Exp. Metastasis, 18, 261-271.
49. Hanahan, D. and Weinberg, R.A. (2000) The hallmarks of cancer. Cell, 100, 57-70.
50. O'Reilly, M.S., Holmgren, L., Shing, Y., Chen, C., Rosenthal, R.A., Moses, M., Lane, W.S., Cao, Y., Sage, E.H. and Folkman, J. (1994) Angiostatin: a novel angiogenesis inhibitor that mediates the suppression of metastases by a Lewis lung carcinoma. Cell, 79, 315-328.
51. Fidler, I.J. (1975) Biological behavior of malignant melanoma cells correlated to their survival in vivo. Cancer Res., 35, 218-224.
52. Struewing, J.P., Hartge, P., Wacholder, S., Baker, S.M., Berlin, M., McAdams, M., Timmerman, M.M., Brody, L.C. and Tucker, M.A. (1997) The risk of cancer associated with specific mutations of BRCA1 and BRCA2 among Ashkenazi Jews [see comments]. N. Engl. J. Med., 336, 1401-1408.
53. Frankel, W.N. (1995) Taking stock of complex trait genetics in mice. Trends Genet., 11, 471-477.
54. Threadgill, D.W., Dlugosz, A.A., Hansen, L.A., Tennenbaum, T., Lichti, U., Yee, D., LaMantia, C., Mourton, T., Herrup, K., Harris, R.C. et al. (1995) Targeted disruption of mouse EGF receptor: effect of genetic background on mutant phenotype. Science, 269, 230-234.
55. Lifsted, T., Le Voyer, T., Williams, M., Muller, W., Klein-Szanto, A., Buetow, K.H. and Hunter, K.W. (1998) Identification of inbred mouse strains harboring genetic modifiers of mammary tumor age of onset and metastatic progression. Int. J. Cancer, 77, 640-644.
56. Hunter, K.W., Welch, D.R. and Liu, E.T. (2003) Genetic background is an important determinant of metastatic potential. Nat. Genet., 34, 23-24.
57. Ramaswamy, S., Ross, K.N., Lander, E.S. and Golub, T.R. (2003) A molecular signature of metastasis in primary solid tumors. Nat. Genet., 33, 49-54.
58. van't Veer, L.J., Dai, H., van de Vijver, M.J., He, Y.D., Hart, A.A., Mao, M., Peterse, H.L., van der Kooy, K., Marton, M.J., Witteveen, A.T., Schreiber, G.J., Kerkhoven, R.M., Roberts, C., Linsley, P.S., Bernards, R. and Friend, S.H. (2002) Gene expression profiling predicts clinical outcome of breast cancer. Nature, 415, 530-536.
59. Blaug, S., Chien, C. and Shuster, M.J. (2004) Managing innovation: university-industry partnerships and the licensing of the Harvard mouse. Nat. Biotechnol., 22, 761-764.
60. Jaffe, S. (2004) Ongoing battle over transgenic mice. OncoMouse patents impede biotechnology advances, but evolving agreements relax some research constaints. The Scientist, 18, 46.
61. Yang, M., Baranov, E., Jiang, P., Sun, F.X., Li, X.M., Li, L., Hasegawa, S., Bouvet, M., Al-Tuwaijri, M., Chishima, T., Shimada, H., Moossa, A.R., Penman, S. and Hoffman, R.M. (2000) Whole-body optical imaging of green fluorescent protein-expressing tumors and metastases. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 97, 1206-1211.
62. Diehn, F.E., Costouros, N.G., Miller, M.S., Feldman, A.L., Alexander, H.R., Li, K.C. and Libutti, S.K. (2002) Noninvasive fluorescent imaging reliably estimates biomass in vivo. Biotechniques, 33, 1250-1252, 1254-1255.
63. Metz, S., Daldrup-Unk, H.E., Richter, T., Rath, C., Ebert, W., Settles, M., Rummeny, E.J., Link, T.M. and Piert, M. (2003) Detection and quantification of breast tumor necrosis with MR imaging: value of the necrosis-avid contrast agent Gadophrin-3. Acad. Radiol., 10, 484-490.
64. Pomper, M.G. (2002) Can small animal imaging accelerate drug development? J. Cell Biochem. Suppl., 39, 211-220.
65. Hoffman, R. (2002) Green fluorescent protein imaging of tumour growth, metastasis, and angiogenesis in mouse models. Lancet. Oncol., 3, 546-556.
66. Kerbel, R.S. (1998) What is the optimal rodent model for anti-tumor drug testing? Cancer Metastasis Rev., 17, 301-304.
67. Jenkins, D.E., Oei, Y., Hornig, Y.S., Yu, S.F., Dusich, J., Purchio, T. and Contag, P.R. (2003) Bioluminescent imaging (BLI) to improve and refine traditional murine models of tumor growth and metastasis. Clin. Exp. Metastasis, 20, 733-744.
68. Ballou, B., Lagerholm, B.C., Ernst, L.A., Bruchez, M.P. and Waggoner, A.S. (2004) Noninvasive imaging of quantum dots in mice. Bioconjug. Chem., 15, 79-86.
69. Re, F., Srinivasan, R., Igarashi, T., Marincola, F. and Childs, R. (2004) Green fluorescent protein expression in dendritic cells enhances their immunogenicity and elicits specific cytotoxic T-cell responses in humans. Exp. Hematol., 32, 210-217.
70. Vail, D.M. and MacEwen, E.G. (2000) Spontaneously occurring tumors of companion animals as models for human cancer. Cancer Invest., 18, 781-792.
71. Hahn, K.A., Bravo, L., Adams, W.H. and Frazier, D.L. (1994) Naturally occurring tumors in dogs as comparative models for cancer therapy research. In Vivo, 8, 133-143.
72. Khanna, C. and Vail, D.M. (2003) Targeting the lung: preclinical and comparative evaluation of anticancer aerosols in dogs with naturally occurring cancers. Curr. Cancer Drug Targets, 3, 265-273.
73. De Nardo, P. (1997) [Veterinary environmental epidemiology: the case of respiratory pathology in the dog]. Ann. Ist. Super Sanita., 33, 587-593.
74. Glickman, L.T., Domanski, L.M., Maguire, T.G., Dubielzig, R.R. and Churg, A. (1983) Mesothelioma in pet dogs associated with exposure of their owners to asbestos. Environ. Res., 32, 305-313.
75. Lingaas, F., Comstock, K.E., Kirkness, E.F., Sorensen, A., Aarskaug, T., Hitte, C., Nickerson, M.L., Moe, L., Schmidt, L.S., Thomas, R., Breen, M., Galibert, F., Zbar, B. and Ostrander, E.A. (2003) A Mutation in the Canine BHD Gene is Associated with Hereditary Multifocal Renal Cystadenocarcinoma and Nodular Dermatofibrosis in the German Shepherd Dog. Hum. Mol. Genet., 23, 3043-3053.
76. Pennisi, E. (2002) Canine evolution. A shaggy dog history. Science, 298, 1540-1542.
77. Switonski, M., Szczerbal, I. and Nowacka, J. (2004) The dog genome map and its use in mammalian comparative genomics. J. Appl. Genet., 45, 195-214.
78. Greer, K.A., Cargill, E.J., Cox, M.L., Clark, L.A., Tsai, K.L., Credille, K.M., Dunstan, R.W., Venta, P.J. and Murphy, K.E. (2003) Digging up the canine genome-a tale to wag about. Cytogenet. Genome Res., 102, 244-248.
79. Kirkness, E.F., Bafna, V., Halpern, A.L., Levy, S., Remington, K., Rusch, D.B., Delcher, A.L., Pop, M., Wang, W., Fraser, C.M. and Venter, J.C. (2003) The dog genome: survey sequencing and comparative analysis. Science, 301, 1898-1903.
80. Aslakson, C.J. and Miller, F.R. (1992) Selective events in the metastatic process defined by analysis of the sequential dissemination of sub-populations of a mouse mammary tumor. Cancer Res., 52, 1399-1405.
81. Naumov, G.N., Townson, J.L., MacDonald, I.C., Wilson, S.M., Bramwell, V.H., Groom, A.C. and Chambers, A.F. (2003) Ineffectiveness of doxorubicin treatment on solitary dormant mammary carcinoma cells or late-developing metastases. Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 82, 199-206.
82. Gauthier, N., Lohm, S., Touzery, C., Chantome, A., Perette, B., Reveneau, S., Brunotte, F., Juillerat-Jeanneret, L. and Jeannin, J.F. (2004) Tumor-derived and host-derived nitric oxide differentially regulate breast carcinoma metastasis to the lungs. Carcinogenesis, 25, 1559-1565.
83. Peters, M.G., Farias, E., Colombo, L., Filmus, J., Puricelli, L. and Bal de Kier Joffe, E. (2003) Inhibition of invasion and metastasis by glypican-3 in a syngeneic breast cancer model. Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 80, 221-232.
84. Holzer, R.G., MacDougall, C., Cortright, G., Atwood, K., Green, J.E. and Jorcyk, C.L. (2003) Development and characterization of a progressive series of mammary adenocarcinoma cell lines derived from the C3(1)/ SV40 Large T-antigen transgenic mouse model. Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 77, 65-76.
85. Rusciano, D., Lorenzoni, P. and Burger, M. (1994) Murine models of liver metastasis. Invasion Metastasis, 14, 349-361.
86. Yu, Y., Khan, J., Khanna, C., Helman, L., Meltzer, P.S. and Merlino, G. (2004) Expression profiling identifies the cytoskeletal organizer ezrin and the developmental homeoprotein Six-1 as key metastatic regulators. Nat. Med., 10, 175-181.
87. Lerner, W.A., Pearlstein, E., Ambrogio, C. and Karpatkin, S. (1983) A new mechanism for tumor induced platelet aggregation. Comparison with mechanisms shared by other tumors with possible pharmacologie strategy toward prevention of metastases. Int. J. Cancer, 31, 463-469.
88. Kashtan, H., Rabau, M., Mullen, J.B., Wong, A.H., Roder, J.C., Shpitz, B., Stern, H.S. and Gallinger, S. (1992) Intra-rectal injection of tumour cells: a novel animal model of rectal cancer. Surg. Oncol., 1, 251-256.
89. Satoh, Y., Esche, C., Gambotto, A., Shurin, G.V., Yurkovetsky, Z.R., Robbins, P.D., Watkins, S.C., Todo, S., Herberman, R.B., Lotze, M.T. and Shurin, M.R. (2002) Local administration of IL-12-transfected dendritic cells induces antitumor immune responses to colon adenocarcinoma in the liver in mice. J. Exp. Ther. Oncol., 2, 337-349.
90. Soares, C.R., Shibata, M.A., Green, J.E. and Jorcyk, C.L. (2002) Development of PIN and prostate adenocarcinoma cell lines: a model system for multistage tumor progression. Neoplasia, 4, 112-120.
91. Sacchi, A., Calabresi, F., Greco, C. and Zupi, G. (1981) Different metastatic potential of in vitro and in vivo lines selected from Lewis lung carcinoma: correlation with response to different bleomycin schedulings. Invasion Metastasis, 1, 227-238.
92. Brodt, P. (1989) Selection of a highly metastatic liver-colonizing subpopulation of Lewis lung carcinoma variant H-59 using murine hepatocyte monolayers. Clin. Exp. Metastasis, 7, 525-539.
93. Chung, D.C., Zetter, B.R. and Brodt, P. (1988) Lewis lung carcinoma variants with differing metastatic specificities adhere preferentially to different defined extracellular matrix molecules. Invasion Metastasis, 8, 103-117.
94. Salup, R.R., Herberman, R.B. and Wiltrout, R.H. (1985) Role of natural killer activity in development of spontaneous metastases in murine renal cancer. J. Urol., 134, 1236-1241.
95. Ji, H., Chang, E.Y., Lin, K.Y., Kurman, R.J., Pardoll, D.M. and Wu, T.C. (1998) Antigen-specific immunotherapy for murine lung metastatic tumors expressing human papillomavirus type 16 E7 oncoprotein. Int. J. Cancer, 78, 41-45.
96. Zhang, S.H., Cong, W.M., Shi, J.Q. and Wei, H. (2004) Genomic instability of murine hepatocellular carcinomas with low and high metastatic capacities. World. J. Gastroenterol, 10, 521-524.
97. Asamoto, M., Hokaiwado, N., Cho, Y.M., Ikeda, Y., Takahashi, S. and Shirai, T. (2001) Metastasizing neuroblastomas from taste buds in rats transgenic for the Simian virus 40 large T antigen under control of the probasin gene promoter. Toxicol. Pathol., 29, 363-368.
98. Davies, M.P., Rudland, P.S., Robertson, L., Parry, E.W., Jolicoeur, P. and Barraclough, R. (1996) Expression of the calcium-binding protein S100A4 (p9Ka) in MMTV-neu transgenic mice induces metastasis of mammary tumours. Oncogene, 13, 1631-1637.
99. Dubois, N., Bennoun, M., Allemand, I., Molina, T., Grimber, G., Daudet-Monsac, M., Abelanet, R. and Briand, P. (1991) Time-course development of differentiated hepatocarcinoma and lung metastasis in transgenic mice. J. Hepatol., 13, 227-239.
100. Fox, N., Crooke, R., Hwang, L.H., Schibler, U., Knowles, B.B. and Solter, D. (1989) Metastatic hibernomas in transgenic mice expressing an alpha-amylase-SV40 T antigen hybrid gene. Science, 244, 460-463.
101. Garabedian, E.M., Humphrey, P.A. and Gordon, J.I. (1998) A transgenic mouse model of metastatic prostate cancer originating from neuroendocrine cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 95, 15382-15387.
102. Grippo, P.J. and Sandgren, E.P. (2000) Highly invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder in a simian virus 40 T-antigen transgenic mouse model. Am. J. Pathol., 157, 805-813.
103. Jansen, A.P., Verwiebe, E.G., Dreckschmidt, N.E., Wheeler, D.L., Oberley, T.D. and Verma, A.K. (2001) Protein kinase C-epsilon transgenic mice: a unique model for metastatic squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Res., 61, 808-812.
104. Jeffers, M., Fiscella, M., Webb, C.P., Anver, M., Koochekpour, S. and Vande Woude, G.F. (1998) The mutationally activated Met receptor mediates motility and metastasis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 95, 14417-14422.
105. Li, Y., Hively, W.P. and Varmus, H.E. (2000) Use of MMTV-Wnt-1 transgenic mice for studying the genetic basis of breast cancer. Oncogene, 19, 1002-1009.
106. McClatchey, A.I., Saotome, I., Mercer. K., Crowley, D., Gusella, J.F., Bronson, R.T. and Jacks, T. (1998) Mice heterozygous for a mutation at the Nf2 tumor suppressor locus develop a range of highly metastatic tumors. Genes Dev., 12, 1121-1133.
107. Mandriota, S.J., Jussila, L., Jeltsch, M., Compagni, A., Baetens, D., Prevo, R., Banerji, S., Huarte, J., Montesano, R., Jackson, D.G., Orci, L., Alitalo, K., Christofori, G. and Pepper, M.S. (2001) Vascular endothelial growth factor-C-mediated lymphangiogenesis promotes tumour metastasis. Embo. J., 20, 672-682.
108. Maroulakou, I.G., Anver, M., Garrett, L. and Green, J.E. (1994) Prostate and mammary adenocarcinoma in transgenic mice carrying a rat C3(1) simian virus 40 large tumor antigen fusion gene. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 91, 11236-11240.
109. Guy, C.T., Webster, M.A., Schaller, M., Parsons, T.J., Cardiff, R.D. and Muller, W.J. (1992) Expression of the neu protooncogene in the mammary epithelium of transgenic mice induces metastatic disease. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 89, 10578-10582.
110. Nielsen, L.L., Discafani, C.M., Gurnani, M. and Tyler, R.D. (1991) Histopathology of salivary and mammary gland tumors in transgenic mice expressing a human Ha-ras oncogene. Cancer. Res., 51, 3762-3767.
111. Otsuka, T., Takayama, H., Sharp, R., Celli, G., LaRochelle, W.J., Bottaro, D.P., Ellmore, N., Vieira, W., Owens, J.W., Anver, M. and Merlino, G. (1998) c-Met autocrine activation induces development of malignant melanoma and acquisition of the metastatic phenotype. Cancer Res., 58, 5157-5167.
112. Pravtcheva, D.D. and Wise, T.L. (1998) Metastasizing mammary carcinomas in H19 enhancers-Igf2 transgenic mice. J. Exp. Zool., 281, 43-57.
113. Masumori, N., Thomas, T.Z., Chaurand, P., Case, T., Paul, M., Kasper, S., Caprioli, R.M., Tsukamoto, T., Shappell, S.B. and Matusik, R.J. (2001) A probasin-large T antigen transgenic mouse line develops prostate adenocarcinoma and neuroendocrine carcinoma with metastatic potential. Cancer Res., 61, 2239-2249.
114. Guy, C.T., Cardiff, R.D. and Muller, W.J. (1992) Induction of mammary tumors by expression of polyomavirus middle T oncogene: a transgenic mouse model for metastatic disease. Mol. Cell Biol., 12, 954-961.
115. Moody, S.E., Sarkisian, C.J., Hahn, K.T., Gunther, E.J., Pickup, S., Dugan, K.D., Innocent, N., Cardiff, R.D., Schnall, M.D. and Chodosh, L.A. (2002) Conditional activation of Neu in the mammary epithelium of transgenic mice results in reversible pulmonary metastasis. Cancer Cell, 2, 451-461.
116. Aguirre, A.J., Bardeesy, N., Sinha, M., Lopez, L., Tuveson, D.A., Horner, J., Redston, M.S. and DePinho, R.A. (2003) Activated Kras and Ink4a/Arf deficiency cooperate to produce metastatic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Genes Dev., 17, 3112-326.
117. Withrow, S.J. and MacEwen, E.G. (2001) Small Animal Clinical Oncology. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA.
118. Kelsey, J.L., Moore, A.S. and Glickman, L.T. (1998) Epidemiologic studies of risk factors for cancer in pet dogs. Epidemiol. Rev., 20, 204-217.
119. Fan, T.M. (2003) Lymphoma updates. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract., 33, 455-471.
120. Valerius, K.D., Powers, B.E., McPherron, M.A., Hutchison, J.M., Mann, F.A. and Withrow, S.J. (1997) Adenomatous polyps and carcinoma in situ of the canine colon and rectum: 34 cases (1982-1994). J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc., 33, 156-160.
121. Waters, D.J. (1999) High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia in dogs. Eur. Urol., 35, 456-458.
122. Sorenmo, K.U., Goldschmidt, M., Shofer, F., Goldkamp, C. and Ferracone, J. (2003) Immunohistochemical characterization of canine prostatic carcinoma and correlation with castration status and castration time. J. Vet. Comparat. Oncol., 1, 48-56.
123. Ahern, T.E., Bird, R.C., Bird, A.E. and Wolfe, L.G. (1996) Expression of the oncogene c-erbB-2 in canine mammary cancers and tumor-derived cell lines. Am. J. Vet. Res., 57, 693-696.
124. Kraegel, S.A., Gumerlock, P.H., Dungworth, D.L., Oreffo, V.I. and Madewell, B.R. (1992) K-ras activation in non-small cell lung cancer in the dog. Cancer Res., 52, 4724-4727.
125. Kraft, S.L., Gavin, P.R., DeHaan, C., Moore, M., Wendling, L.R. and Leathers, C.W. (1997) Retrospective review of 50 canine intracranial tumors evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging. J. Vet. intern. Med., 11, 218-225.
126. Withrow, S.J., Powers, B.E., Straw, R.C. and Wilkins, R.M. (1991) Comparative aspects of osteosarcoma. Dog versus man. Clin. Orthop., 159-168.